The j-j coupling method, which is historically linked to X-ray notation, is almost always used to denote Auger transitions.

He developed a convention for naming the different spectral lines that are characteristic to elements in X-ray spectroscopy, the Siegbahn notation.

The Siegbahn notation is used in X-ray spectroscopy to name the spectral lines that are characteristic to elements.

Since the 1920s, X-ray diffraction has been the principal method for determining the arrangement of atoms in minerals and metals.

He is currently principal investigator for the Chandra Deep Field-South project with NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory.

Such VCD studies of proteins are often combined with X-ray diffraction of protein crystals, FT-IR data for protein solutions in heavy water ( D < sub > 2 </ sub > O ), or ab initio quantum computations to provide unambiguous structural assignments that are unobtainable from CD.

By introducing the quantum defect d as an empirical parameter, the energy levels of a generic atom were well approximated by the formula, in the sense that one could reproduce fairly well the observed transitions levels observed in the X-ray region ( for example, see the empirical discussion and derivation in Moseley's law ).

The photoemission or photoelectric effect is a quantum electronic phenomenon in which electrons ( photoelectrons ) are emitted from matter after the absorption of energy from electromagnetic radiation such as UV light or X-ray.

It presents case histories and a number of X-ray plates to support claims that Dianetics had cured " aberrations " including manic depression, asthma, arthritis, colitis and " overt homosexuality ," and that after Dianetic processing, test subjects experienced significantly increased scores on a standardized IQ test.

Moseley's method in early X-ray spectroscopy was able to sort out the above chemical problems promptly, some of which had occupied chemists for a number of years.

Iodine's relatively high atomic number, low toxicity, and ease of attachment to organic compounds have made it a part of many X-ray contrast materials in modern medicine.

In addition to these commercially well-established techniques, a large number of promising microlithographic and nanolithographic technologies exist or are being developed, including nanoimprint lithography, interference lithography, X-ray lithography, extreme ultraviolet lithography, magnetolithography and scanning probe lithography.

As the crystal's repeating unit, its unit cell, becomes larger and more complex, the atomic-level picture provided by X-ray crystallography becomes less well-resolved ( more " fuzzy ") for a given number of observed reflections.

X-ray detectors collect individual X-rays ( photons of X-ray electromagnetic radiation ) and count the number of photons collected ( intensity ), the energy ( 0. 12 to 120 keV ) of the photons collected, wavelength (~ 0. 008 to 8 nm ), or how fast the photons are detected ( counts per hour ), to tell us about the object that is emitting them.

To explain the drop in X-ray emission across these dividing lines, a number of models have been proposed:

Observations are revealing a growing number of recurrent X-ray transients, characterized by short outbursts with very fast rise times ( tens of minutes ) and typical durations of a few hours that are associated with OB supergiants and hence define a new class of massive X-ray binaries: Supergiant Fast X-ray Transients ( SFXTs ).

In most cases the procedure starts with the medical team taking a number of CT scan X-ray images of the brain of the patient.

They all share the same detection principle: An incoming X-ray photon ionises a large number of detector atoms with the amount of charge produced being proportional to the energy of the incoming photon.

For less demanding applications, or when the sample is damaged by a vacuum ( e. g. a volatile sample ), a helium-swept X-ray chamber can be substituted, with some loss of low-Z ( Z = atomic number ) intensities.

A number of sources of X-ray photons have been used ; these include X-ray generators, betatrons, and linear accelerators ( linacs ).

The number and total area of sunspots are related to the brightness of the Sun in the extreme ultraviolet ( EUV ) and X-ray portions of the solar spectrum and to solar activity such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections ( CMEs ).

For example, because MRI has only been in use since the early 1980s, there are no known long-term effects of exposure to strong static fields ( this is the subject of some debate ; see ' Safety ' in MRI ) and therefore there is no limit to the number of scans to which an individual can be subjected, in contrast with X-ray and CT.

While X-ray and electron beams are by far the most widely used sources for external beam radiotherapy, a small number of centers operate experimental and pilot programs employing heavier particle beams, particularly proton sources.

The advantage of microPIXE is that given a protein of known sequence, the X-ray emission from sulfur can be used as an internal standard to calculate the number of metal atom per protein monomer.

Impinging on a crystalline sample it will scatter under a limited number of well-defined angles according to the same Bragg's law that describes X-ray diffraction.

The 1941 report ends: " The X-ray branch had as a guest Professor Rose C. L. Mooney of Newcomb College, who was prevented by the war from carrying on research in Europe under a Guggenheim Fellowship ... As the year ends, the National Defense effort is beginning to claim the services of a number of staff members.

This, along with its relatively low X-ray emission, suggests that the star may be in a Maunder minimum period during which a star produces a reduced number of star spots.

In 1914 Henry Moseley found a relationship between an element's X-ray wavelength and its atomic number ( Z ), and therefore resequenced the table by nuclear charge rather than atomic weight.

( The P-20 input is of interest because it corresponds roughly to the light emission of conventional X-ray fluorescent screens ).

The observations show that the cloud is asymmetrical and matches the pattern of X-ray binaries ( binary star systems containing black holes or neutron stars ), mostly on one side of the galactic center.

* The Small-angle X-ray scattering intensity of a nanostructured system is the Fourier transform of the spatial autocorrelation function of the electron density.

* Autocorrelation in space rather than time, via the Patterson function, is used by X-ray diffractionists to help recover the " Fourier phase information " on atom positions not available through diffraction alone.

* In Astrophysics, auto-correlation is used to study and characterize the spatial distribution of galaxies in the Universe and in multi-wavelength observations of Low Mass X-ray Binaries.

Because of its low density and atomic mass, beryllium is relatively transparent to X-rays and other forms of ionizing radiation ; therefore, it is the most common window material for X-ray equipment and in particle physics experiments.

As a metal, beryllium is transparent to most wavelengths of X-rays and gamma rays, making it useful for the output windows of X-ray tubes and other such apparatus.

For example in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24 – 36 hours after an attack, some small percentage of individuals ( those with compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the organism due to proximity to the release point ) will become ill with classical symptoms and signs ( including a virtually unique chest X-ray finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive timely reports ).

* Calcium tungstate ( CaWO < sub > 4 </ sub >) is used in luminous paints, fluorescent lights and in X-ray studies.

As a matter of safety, the face is typically made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block most X-ray emissions, particularly if the CRT is used in a consumer product.

This is most obvious in the " far " ( or " extreme ") ultraviolet, and also X-ray and gamma radiation, are referred to as ionizing radiation due to the ability of photons of this radiation to produce ions and free radicals in materials ( including living tissue ).

The lost energy is converted into alternative forms such as heat, emission of low-energy secondary electrons and high-energy backscattered electrons, light emission ( cathodoluminescence ) or X-ray emission, which provide signals carrying information about the properties of the specimen surface, such as its topography and composition.

An example of modern paleontological progress is the application of synchrotron X-ray tomographic techniques to early Cambrian bilaterian embryonic microfossils that has recently yielded new insights of metazoan evolution at its earliest stages.

It is a matter of debate whether Watson and Crick should have had access to Franklin's results without her knowledge or permission, and before she had a chance to formally publish the results of her detailed analysis of her X-ray diffraction data which were included in the progress report.

In a typical cluster perhaps only 5 % of the total mass is in the form of galaxies, maybe 10 % in the form of hot X-ray emitting gas and the remainder is dark matter.

This type of display is normally used for measuring gamma or X-ray dose rates and requires the use of an " energy compensated " GM tube, so that the absorbed dose displayed relates to the count events.

Ionization is due to soft X-ray ( 1-10 nm ) and far ultraviolet ( UV ) solar radiation ionization of molecular oxygen ( O < sub > 2 </ sub >).

Because of their small size and the difficulty of crystallizing integral membrane proteins for X-ray analysis, it is only very recently that scientists have been able to directly examine what channels " look like.

Nominal X-ray energy is usually limited to 5 MeV ; the USA has provisions for up to 7. 5 MeV, which increases conversion efficiency.

* 1896 – An X-ray generating machine is exhibited for the first time by H. L.

A chest CT-scan showing a thymoma ( red circle ) A chest X-ray is frequently performed ; it may point towards alternative diagnoses ( e. g. Lambert-Eaton syndrome due to a lung tumor ) and comorbidity.