Connes has applied his work in areas of mathematics and theoretical physics, including number theory, differential geometry and particle physics.

The standard model of particle physics was developed that so far has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these sub-atomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions.

In particle physics, antimatter is material composed of antiparticles, which have the same mass as particles of ordinary matter but have opposite charge and quantum spin.

After 1965 Sakharov returned to fundamental science and began working on particle physics and cosmology.

) In the field of particle physics, " shmoo " refers to a high energy survey instrument, as utilized at the Los Alamos National Laboratory to capture subatomic cosmic ray particles emitted from the Cygnus X-3 constellation.

Because of its low density and atomic mass, beryllium is relatively transparent to X-rays and other forms of ionizing radiation ; therefore, it is the most common window material for X-ray equipment and in particle physics experiments.

After about 10 < sup >− 11 </ sup > seconds, the picture becomes less speculative, since particle energies drop to values that can be attained in particle physics experiments.

Dark energy in its simplest formulation takes the form of the cosmological constant term in Einstein's field equations of general relativity, but its composition and mechanism are unknown and, more generally, the details of its equation of state and relationship with the Standard Model of particle physics continue to be investigated both observationally and theoretically.

Precise modern models of the Big Bang appeal to various exotic physical phenomena that have not been observed in terrestrial laboratory experiments or incorporated into the Standard Model of particle physics.

The particle physics community as a whole did not view their existence as likely in 2006 ,< ref name = PDGPentaquarks2006 > W .- M. Yao et al.

Within the prevailing Standard Model of particle physics, the number of baryons may change in multiples of three due to the action of sphalerons, although this is rare and has not been observed under experiment.

Some grand unified theories of particle physics also predict that a single proton can decay, changing the baryon number by one ; however, this has not yet been observed under experiment.

Areas relevant to cosmology include particle physics experiments and theory, including astrophysics, general relativity, and plasma physics.

One is that there is no compelling reason, using current particle physics, to expect the universe to be flat, homogeneous and isotropic ( see the cosmological principle ).

Moreover, grand unified theories of particle physics suggest that there should be magnetic monopoles in the universe, which have not been found.

The physical model behind cosmic inflation is extremely simple, however it has not yet been confirmed by particle physics, and there are difficult problems reconciling inflation and quantum field theory.

The theory of baryogenesis was worked out by Andrei Sakharov in 1967, and requires a violation of the particle physics symmetry, called CP-symmetry, between matter and antimatter.

Both the problems of baryogenesis and cosmic inflation are very closely related to particle physics, and their resolution might come from high energy theory and experiment, rather than through observations of the universe.

Dark matter has never been detected in the laboratory, and the particle physics nature of dark matter remains completely unknown.

While the detailed particle physics mechanism responsible for inflation is not known, the basic picture makes a number of predictions that have been confirmed by observation.

Theoretical condensed matter physics shares important concepts and techniques with theoretical particle and nuclear physics.

* propagation ( may comprise several elementary steps, as, for instance, reaction elementary acts, where the active particle through reaction forms another active particle which continues the reaction chain by entering the next elementary step ); particular cases are:

:: * chain transfer ( the case in which one active particle enters an elementary reaction with the inactive particle which as a result becomes another active particle along with forming of another inactive particle from the initial active one );

* termination ( elementary step in which active particle loses its activity without transferring the chain ; e. g. recombination of the free radicals ).

Historically, the electron volt was devised as a standard unit of measure through its usefulness in electrostatic particle accelerator sciences because a particle with charge q has an energy E = qV after passing through the potential V ; if q is quoted in integer units of the elementary charge and the terminal bias in volts, one gets an energy in eV.

Like the elementary charge on which it is based, it is not an independent quantity but is equal to ( 1 J / C )( 2 h α / μ < sub > 0 </ sub > c < sub > 0 </ sub >)< sup > 0. 5 </ sup > It is a common unit of energy within physics, widely used in solid state, atomic, nuclear, and particle physics.

In particle physics, fundamental interactions ( sometimes called interactive forces or fundamental forces ) are the ways that elementary particles interact with one another.

If an elementary particle truly has no substructure, then it is one of the basic building blocks of the universe from which all other particles are made.

In the Standard Model of particle physics, the elementary particles include the fundamental fermions ( including quarks, leptons, and their antiparticles ), and the fundamental bosons ( including gauge bosons and the Higgs boson ).

A central feature in elementary particle theory is the early 20th century idea of " quanta ", which revolutionized the understanding of electromagnetic radiation and brought about quantum mechanics.

For mathematical purposes, elementary particles are normally treated as point particles, although some particle theories such as string theory posit a physical dimension.

The Standard Model of particle physics contains 12 flavors of elementary fermions, plus their corresponding antiparticles, as well as elementary bosons that mediate the forces and the Higgs boson, which was reported on July 4th, 2012, as having been likely detected by the two main experiments at the LHC ( ATLAS and CMS ).

In the field of high-energy particle physics, the fundamental velocity unit is the speed of light c. Thus, dividing energy in eV by the speed of light in vacuum, one can describe the momentum of an electron in units of eV / c.

In particle physics, the electroweak interaction is the unified description of two of the four known fundamental interactions of nature: electromagnetism and the weak interaction.

In their presentations of fundamental interactions, written from the particle physics perspective, Gerard ’ t Hooft and Martinus Veltman gave good arguments for taking the original, non-regularized Feynman diagrams as the most succinct representation of our present knowledge about the physics of quantum scattering of fundamental particles.

The holographic principle thus implies that the subdivisions must stop at some level, and that the fundamental particle is a bit ( 1 or 0 ) of information.

* Standard Model, the theory in particle physics which describes certain fundamental forces and particles

From a fundamental physics perspective, mass is the number describing under which the representation of the little group of the Poincaré group a particle transforms.

The current set of fundamental fields and their dynamics are summarized in a theory called the Standard Model, therefore particle physics is largely the study of the Standard Model's particle content and its possible extensions.

A quark ( or ) is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter.

Quarks are the only elementary particles in the Standard Model of particle physics to experience all four fundamental interactions, also known as fundamental forces ( electromagnetism, gravitation, strong interaction, and weak interaction ), as well as the only known particles whose electric charges are not integer multiples of the elementary charge.

There is currently no complete quantum theory of the remaining fundamental force, gravity, but many of the proposed theories postulate the existence of a graviton particle that mediates it.

For instance, the fundamental observables associated with the motion of a single quantum mechanical particle are the position and momentum operators and.

One suggested starting point is ordinary quantum field theories which, after all, are successful in describing the other three basic fundamental forces in the context of the standard model of elementary particle physics.

These forces, and also energy gained from the scattering particle by the lighter target, change the scattering results in fundamental ways which suggest structural information about the target.