Following the rise of the Taliban in 1996, Massoud, who rejected the Taliban's fundamentalist interpretation of Islam, returned to the armed opposition, serving as the military and political leader of the United Islamic Front ( also known in the West as Northern Alliance ).

He served as the political head of the United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan ( UIFSA ), an alliance of various political groups who fought against the Taliban in Afghanistan.

In view of implacable demands by the political leadership of both Hindu and Islamic communities in British India for a separate Hindu and a separate Muslim homeland, Mountbatten conceded the notion of two nations consisting of a Hindu-majority India and a Muslim-majority Pakistan ( which incorporated East Pakistan, now Bangladesh ).

Nicknamed " The City of a Thousand Minarets " for its preponderance of Islamic architecture, Cairo has long been a centre of the region's political and cultural life.

However, in adherence to the ideas of Arab Nationalism, the Arab countries prefer to give preference to the Literary Arabic which is common to all of them, conduct much of their political, cultural and religious life in it ( adherence to Islam ), and refrain from declaring each country's specific variety to be a separate language, because Literary Arabic is the liturgical language of Islam and the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Qur ' an.

* Islamic political jurisprudence فقه السياسة

In the United States, private or cultural intolerance of women wearing the hijab ( Islamic headcovering ) and political activism by Muslims also has been labeled " secular fundamentalism " by some Muslims in the U. S.

For about the next 10 years, the country saw a steady process of secular Westernization through Atatürk's Reforms, which included the unification of education ; the discontinuation of religious and other titles ; the closure of Islamic courts and the replacement of Islamic canon law with a secular civil code modeled after Switzerland's and a penal code modeled after the Italian Penal Code ; recognition of the equality between the sexes and the granting of full political rights to women on 5 December 1934 ; the language reform initiated by the newly founded Turkish Language Association ; replacement of the Ottoman Turkish alphabet with the new Turkish alphabet derived from the Latin alphabet ; the dress law ( the wearing of a fez, is outlawed ); the law on family names ; and many others.

Although affected by ideologies such as communism during much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political issues intensified during the early 21st century.

The scientific research of the Islamic scientists is often overlooked due to the conflict of the Crusades and " it's possible, too, that many scholars in the Renaissance later played down or even disguised their connection to the Middle East for both political and religious reasons.

Hezbollah (, literally " Party of Allah " or " Party of God ") is a Shi ' a Islamic militant group and political party based in Lebanon.

Further, Islamic Jihadist-of which Al Qaeda in Iraq is a member-continued to use terror and extreme acts of violence against collaborationist populations to advance their religious and political agenda ( s ).

Leading Islamist thinkers emphasize the enforcement of Sharia ( Islamic law ); of pan-Islamic political unity ; and of the elimination of non-Muslim, particularly Western military, economic, political, social, or cultural influences in the Muslim world, which they believe to be incompatible with Islam.

Many of those described as " Islamists " oppose the use of the term, and claim that their political beliefs and goals are simply an expression of Islamic religious belief.

The use of the term Islamism was at first " a marker for scholars more likely to sympathize " with new Islamic movements ; however, as the term gained popularity it became more specifically associated with political groups such as the Taliban or the Algerian Armed Islamic Group, as well as with highly publicized acts of violence.

" Similarly, a writer for the International Crisis Group maintains that " the conception of ' political Islam '" is a creation of Americans to explain the Iranian Islamic Revolution.

Another source distinguishes Islamist from Islamic " by the fact that the latter refers to a religion and culture in existence over a millennium, whereas the first is a political / religious phenomenon linked to the great events of the 20th century ".

Cultural dependency robs one of faith and identity and thus destroys Islam and the Islamic community ( ummah ) far more effectively than political rule.

In this context, the publications of Jamal ad-din al-Afghani ( 1837 – 97 ), Muhammad Abduh ( 1849 – 1905 ) and Rashid Rida ( 1865 – 1935 ) preached Islamic alternatives to the political, economic, and cultural decline of the empire.

His was arguably the first, largest and most influential modern Islamic political / religious organization.

Other lesser known groups include the Islamic Liberation Party, Al-Najun min al-nar and Al-Takfir wa al-Hijra and these groups have variously been involved in activities such as attempted assassinations of political figures, arson of video shops and attempted takeovers of government buildings.

The title " teacher " was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers ( as in the famous poem of Dante ) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.

Kimiya-yi sa ' ādat ( The Alchemy of Happiness ) – a text on Islamic philosophy and spiritual alchemy by Al-Ghazali | Al-Ghazālī ( 1058 – 1111 ).

In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity through the Roman Empire marked the ending of Hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of Medieval philosophy, whereas in Eastern philosophy, the spread of Islam through the Arab Empire marked the end of Old Iranian philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of early Islamic philosophy.

The nature of " being " has also been debated and explored in Islamic philosophy, notably by Ibn Sina, Suhrawardi, and Mulla Sadra.

Later he returned to Egypt to complete his PhD in Islamic philosophy and his thesis was titled " The Philosophy and Teachings of Abd al-Rahman Muhammad Jami.

He has drawn upon his knowledge of Western philosophy, Marxist sociology, and radical Islamist political theory to advocate a modern Islamic perspective that does not hesitate to criticize genuine societal ills while simultaneously remaining faithful to the ethical values and spiritual dimensions of religion.

Ibn al-Nafis dealt with Islamic eschatology in some depth in his Theologus Autodidactus, where he rationalized the Islamic view of eschatology using reason, science, and philosophy to explain the events that would occur according to Islamic eschatology.

Muslim culture and philosophy have heavily influenced practitioners of Judaism in the Islamic world.

Early forms of logic in Islamic philosophy were introduced in Islamic jurisprudence from the 7th century with the process of Qiyas.

* Contemporary Islamic philosophy

From the 8th century, the Mutazilite school of Islam, compelled to defend their principles against the orthodox Islam of their day, looked for support in philosophy, and are among the first to pursue a rational Islamic theology, called Ilm-al-Kalam ( scholastic theology ).

The teleological argument was presented by the early Islamic philosophers, Alkindus and Averroes ( founder of Averroism ), while Avicenna ( founder of the Avicennism school of Islamic philosophy ) presented both the cosmological argument and ontological argument in The Book of Healing ( 1027 ).

Ottoman science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars ' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass.

According to Islamic philosophy of war, the areas under Islamic rule were to be abodes of peace and the other areas abodes of war.

Early Islamic philosophy emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion, and the process of ijtihad to find truth-in effect all philosophy was " political " as it had real implications for governance.

A Lebanese Moslem told about its existence and application in the Islamic tradition as the `` divine law '', while a C.A.I.P. member who has been working in close association with delegates of the new U.N. nations told of its widespread recognition on the African continent.

Arabic literature spans for over two millennium, it has three phases, the pre-Islamic, Islamic and modern.

Since its inception in the early 1990s, the group has carried out bombings, kidnappings, assassinations and extortion in what they describe as their fight for an independent Islamic province in the Philippines.

Aside from relations with other ASEAN states, Brunei also has extensive relations with the Islamic and Arab world.

Rabbani was also the leader of Jamiat-e Islami Afghanistan ( Islamic Society of Afghanistan ), which has close ties to Pakistan's Jamaat-e-Islami.

He has been quoted as stating that Comoros is not ready to become an Islamic state, nor shall the veil be forced upon any women in the Comoros.

Change of Islamic law is not possible, but were there a concubine in the modern era, she must be given all her due rights that Islam has preserved in the past.

A passage in Muhtasar kitab al-buldan illustrates the division of Islamic society into strata: " First are the rulers, whom their deserts has placed in the foremost rank ; second are the viziers, distinguished by wisdom and understanding ; third are the wealthy upper classes, lifted by their possessions ; fourth are the middle classes who are attached to the upper three by culture ( ta ' addub ); the remainder are the lowest classes that are filthy refuse, a torrent of scum, none of whom thinks of anything but food and sleep.

In Islamic North Africa, caste system has existed in recent centuries amongst the Tuareg people.

Cairo has been a crossroads of Arab commerce and culture for millennia, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural landmark palace.

* Although the Government of Ethiopia has allied with local clans in opposition to the Transitional National Government in the past, it currently is supporting the Transitional Government against its main rival, the Islamic Courts Union.

In Modern Standard Arabic, fiqh has come to mean jurisprudence in general, be it Islamic or secular.

In nations where Islamic law is the basis of civil law, but has not been codified, as is the case of some Arab countries in the Middle East, fatwā by the national religious leadership are debated prior to being issued.

In the majority of Arab countries, however, Islamic law has been codified in each country according to its own rules, and is interpreted by the judicial system according to the national jurisprudence.

The closest such organism is the Islamic Fiqh Academy, ( a member of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation ( OIC )), which has 57 member states.

America has done this for decades without suffering the consequences of any punishment or protests about their oppressive and prejudiced position from the Islamic world.

In 2005, the Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei has issued the fatwā that the production, stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons are forbidden under Islam and that Iran shall never acquire these weapons.

The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan has close and friendly relations with a number of countries around the world, including: the United States, Japan, Germany, Turkey, India, China, Canada, Russia, United Arab Emirates and many others.

Islamic fundamentalism has appeared in many counties ; the Wahhabi version is promoted worldwide and financed by Saudi Arabia.

For instance, the Archbishop of Wales has criticized " atheistic fundamentalism " broadly and said " Any kind of fundamentalism, be it Biblical, atheistic or Islamic, is dangerous ".

This work clearly contradicts the New Testament biblical accounts of Jesus and his ministry but has strong parallels with the Islamic faith, not only mentioning Muhammad by name, but including the shahadah ( chapter 39 ).