* 1953 – Francis Crick and James D. Watson publish " Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid " describing the double helix structure of DNA.

** Molecular Techniques: gel electrophoresis — transformation — PCR — PCR mutagenesis — primer — chromosome walking — RFLP — restriction enzyme — sequencing — shotgun sequencing — cloning — culture — DNA microarray

Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 million years ago, first the gorillas, and then the chimpanzees ( genus Pan ) split off from the line leading to the humans ; human DNA is approximately 98. 4 % identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms ( see human evolutionary genetics ).

All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner who subsequently worked with Crick at Cambridge in the Cavendish Laboratory and the new Laboratory of Molecular Biology.

Confirmation and clarity came a year later in 1953, when James D. Watson and Francis Crick correctly hypothesized, in their journal article " Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid ", the double helix structure of DNA, and suggested the copying mechanism by which DNA functions as hereditary material.

* Molecular self-assembly-Arbitrary sequences of DNA can now be synthesized cheaply in bulk, and used to create custom proteins or regular patterns of amino acids.

Molecular structure of DNA.

* April 25 – Francis Crick and James D. Watson publish " Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids: A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid ", their description of the double helix structure of DNA.

Molecular nanowires are composed of repeating molecular units either organic ( e. g. DNA ) or inorganic ( e. g. Mo < sub > 6 </ sub > S < sub > 9-x </ sub > I < sub > x </ sub >).

Molecular studies have been made on dugong populations using mitochondrial DNA.

Molecular markers ( small lengths of DNA of a characterized / known sequence ) are used to ' tag ' and thus track such translocations.

“ Hybrid PNA / DNA Nanosystems .” In 1st International Conference on Nanoscale / Molecular Mechanics ( N-M2-I ), Outrigger Wailea Resort, Maui, Hawaii.

Molecular biologists use several shorthand terms when referring to nucleic acid molecules, such as DNA and RNA, collectively referred to as nucleic acid nomenclature.

All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner who subsequently worked with Crick at Cambridge in the Cavendish Laboratory and the new Laboratory of Molecular Biology.

GenBank coordinates with individual laboratories and other sequence databases such as those of the European Molecular Biology Laboratory ( EMBL ) and the DNA Data Bank of Japan ( DDBJ ).

Molecular phylogenetics is the analysis of hereditary molecular differences, mainly in DNA sequences, to gain information on an organism's evolutionary relationships.

* Soltis, P. S., Soltis, D. E., and Doyle, J. J. ( 1998 ) Molecular Systematics of Plants II: DNA Sequencing.

Molecular diagnostics using the mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ) cytochrome b gene can differentiate A. m. scutellata from other A. mellifera lineages, though mtDNA only allows one to detect an Africanized colony that has an Africanized queen, and not colonies where a European queen has mated with Africanized drones.

Molecular biology research uses numerous proteins and enzymes many of which are from expression systems ; particularly DNA polymerase for PCR, reverse transcriptase for RNA analysis and restriction endonucleases for cloning.

Molecular evolution is in part a process of evolution at the scale of DNA, RNA, and proteins.

Molecular systematics has been made possible by the availability of techniques for DNA sequencing, which allow the determination of the exact sequence of nucleotides or bases in either DNA or RNA.

Molecular phylogeny, particularly with the advent of nuclear DNA testing in addition to the mDNA testing ( testing in the Conidae initially began by Christopher Meyer and Alan Kohn ) is continuing on the Conidae.

In 1994, his paper Molecular Computation of Solutions To Combinatorial Problems described the experimental use of DNA as a computational system.

Molecular genetic testing by linkage analysis or direct mutation screening is available clinically ; however, genetic heterogeneity is a significant complication to molecular genetic testing.

Molecular analysis of CPOX is the best way to identify these patients, as they will not express a biochemical phenotype on laboratory testing unless they are symptomatic.

Molecular genetic studies of the HPRT gene mutations may confirm diagnosis, and are particularly helpful for subsequent ' carrier testing ' in at-risk females such as close family relatives on the female side.

Molecular genetic testing is the most effective method of testing, as HPRT1 is the only gene known to be associated with LNS.

Molecular genetic testing for this mutation is available clinically.

Molecular genetic testing of the NEMO IKBKG gene ( chromosomal locus Xq28 ) reveals disease-causing mutations in about 80 % of probands.

Molecular DNA testing for the mutation that is common in the Ashkenazi Jewish population is also available.

Molecular testing for DNA deletions or mutations is also offered, and can be particularly useful in the evaluation of individuals with associated medical conditions ( see below ).

Molecular mechanics simulations, for example, use a single classical expression for the energy of a compound, for instance the harmonic oscillator.

* Center for Advanced Molecular Photovoltaics

Molecular distillation is used industrially for purification of oils.

Molecular sieves are often used for this purpose as well.

Two sister organizations were formed: the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing and the Center for Constitutional Issues in Technology.

See, for example, the Molecular Genealogy Research Project.

In practice, credit has accrued to both the inventor and the company ( although not its individual workers ) in the form of a Nobel Prize and a $ 10, 000 Cetus bonus for Mullis and $ 300 million for Cetus when the company sold the patent to Roche Molecular Systems.

* Centre for Molecular Protein Science

", Micro and Mol Biol Revs, 68, 796-813 ( available online at Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, American Society for Microbiology )

Molecular structure of 3, 4-diaminopyridine, a commonly used drug treatment for LEMS.

* MARS, or Molecular Adsorbents Recirculation System for liver dialysis

For instance, polyethylene ( PE ) is a cheap, low friction polymer commonly used to make disposable shopping bags and trash bags, and is considered a commodity plastic, whereas medium-density polyethylene ( MDPE ) is used for underground gas and water pipes, and another variety called Ultra-high Molecular Weight Polyethylene UHMWPE is an engineering plastic which is used extensively as the glide rails for industrial equipment and the low-friction socket in implanted hip joints.

In 1992, Drexler published Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation, a detailed proposal for synthesizing stiff covalent structures using a table-top factory.

* Nanotechnology: Molecular Speculations on Global Abundance Edited by BC Crandall ( ISBN 0-262-53137-2 ) offers interesting ideas for MNT applications.

* Institute for Molecular Manufacturing

Molecular nanotechnology is highly theoretical, seeking to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology might yield and to propose an agenda for future inquiry.

According to Robert Freitas of the Institute for Molecular Manufacturing, a typical blood borne medical nanorobot would be between 0. 5-3 micrometres in size, because that is the maximum size possible due to capillary passage requirement.

Robert A. Freitas Jr. is a Senior Research Fellow, one of four researchers at the nonprofit foundation Institute for Molecular Manufacturing in Palo Alto, California.