Bernard Lewis states that the Muslim laity and Islamic authorities have always had great difficulty in accommodating post-Islamic monotheistic religions such as the Bahá ' í Faith, since the followers of such religions cannot be dismissed either as benighted heathens, like the polytheists of Asia and the animists of Africa, nor as outdated precursors, like the Jews and Christians.

The Saraiki community diffused when Saraiki-speaking Hindus migrated to the neighboring Indian states of Bikaner and Jaisalmer during Partition and were replaced by Urdu-speaking Muslim refugees from India.

An early Muslim tradition is that the Negus Ashama ibn Abjar offered asylum to a group of Muslims fleeing persecution during Muhammad's life ( 615 ), but Stuart Munro-Hay believes that Axum had been abandoned as the capital by then – although Kobishchanov states that Ethiopian raiders plagued the Red Sea, preying on Arabian ports at least as late as 702.

Arab states, seeing Eritrea and its large Muslim population as an extension of the Arab world, sought the establishment of an independent state.

In 1961 the ELF's political character was vague, but radical Arab states such as Syria and Iraq sympathized with Eritrea as a predominantly Muslim region struggling to escape Ethiopian oppression and imperial domination.

Mountbatten tried to persuade Jinnah of a united India, citing the difficult task of dividing the mixed states of Punjab and Bengal, but the Muslim leader was unyielding in his goal of establishing a separate Muslim state called Pakistan.

During the next 750 years, independent Muslim states were established, and the entire area of Muslim control became known as Al-Andalus.

The Islamic Caliphate and other Islamic states took over the Middle East, Caucasus and Central Asia during the Muslim conquests of the 7th century, and later expanded into the Indian subcontinent and Malay archipelago.

Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between English Language Teaching ( ELT ), patriotism and Muslim faith is seen as one of the aims of ELT, as the chairman of the Punjab Textbook Board openly states: " The board ... takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your students home lands " ( Punjab Text Book Board 1997 ).

* By the end of World War I, most Muslim states were seen to be dominated by the Christian-leaning Western states.

* Along with the Yom Kippur War came the Arab oil embargo where the ( Muslim ) Persian Gulf oil-producing states ' dramatic decision to cut back on production and quadruple the price of oil, made the terms oil, Arabs and Islam synonymous – with power – in the world, and especially in the Muslim world's public imagination.

Unlike earlier anti-colonial movements, Islamic Jihad directed its attacks against what it believed were " apostate " leaders of Muslim states, leaders who held secular leanings or who had introduced or promoted Western / foreign ideas and practices into Islamic societies.

Muslim exegesis preserves a tradition, which parallels that of the Hebrew Bible, which states that Hezekiah was the king that ruled over Jerusalem during Isaiah's time.

Muslim scholar Mahmoud Ayoub states that " The goal of true jihad is to attain a harmony between islam ( submission ), iman ( faith ), and ihsan ( righteous living ).

The Muslim states of Syria were meanwhile gradually united by Nur ad-Din, who defeated the Principality of Antioch at the Battle of Inab in 1149 and gained control of Damascus in 1154.

Slavery was less common than ransom, especially for prisoners of war ; the large numbers of prisoners taken during raids and battles every year ensured that ransom money flowed freely between the Christian and Muslim states.

West African states with Muslim populations have also been the source of some personnel.

Most Muslims accept as a Muslim anyone who has publicly pronounced the Shahadah ( declaration of faith ) which states, " I testify that there is no god except for the God, and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God.

The Society of the Muslim Brothers (, often simply:, " the Muslim Brotherhood ", transliterated: ) is the Arab world's most influential and one of the largest Islamic movements, and is the largest political opposition organization in many Arab states.

Mecca was never the capital of any of the Islamic states but Muslim rulers did contribute to its upkeep.

Azerbaijan is one of the few countries with predominantly Muslim populations that shares a strategic alliance with Israel.

These were built on the Muslim tradition of a communitarian ethic on the one hand, and responsible individual conscience with freedom to negotiate one's own moral commitment and destiny on the other.

Together with his father and brothers, Alexios had conspired against Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos ( c. 1183 ), and thus he spent several years in exile in Muslim courts, including that of Saladin.

Secure on the throne, Afonso III then proceeded to make war with the Muslim communities that still thrived in the south.

He followed this with the conquest of Minorca-until then, an autonomous Muslim state ( Manûrqa ) under the Kingdom of Majorca-on 17 January 1287, the anniversary of which now serves as Minorca's national holiday.

This gave Andronikos the opportunity to seize the crown for himself, leaving his retirement in 1182 and marching to Constantinople with an army that ( according to non-Byzantine sources ) included Muslim contingents.

* 2003 – Ayatollah Sayed Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim, the Shia Muslim leader in Iraq, is assassinated in a terrorist bombing, along with nearly 100 worshippers as they leave a mosque in Najaf.

He studied engineering at Kabul University in the 1970s, where he became involved with Muslim anti-communist movements around Burhanuddin Rabbani.

During that time, while studying at Kabul University, Massoud became involved with the Sazman-i Jawanan-i Musulman (" Organization of Muslim Youth "), the student branch of the Jamiat-i Islami (" Islamic Society "), whose chairman then was professor Burhanuddin Rabbani.

Rival Muslim dynasties such as the Fatimids of Egypt and the Umayyads of al-Andalus were also major intellectual centres with cities such as Cairo and Córdoba rivaling Baghdad.

Al-Maqqari quotes prior Muslim historians as having recorded that Abd al-Rahman said he was so overcome with fear at that moment, that once he made the far shore he ran until exhaustion overcame him.

Following the Berber Revolt of the 740s, the province was in a state of confusion, with the Muslim community torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers.

Sympathizing with the plight of the Uyghurs, whose lands were conquered by the Qing dynasty, Ahmad Shah attempted to rally neighboring Muslim nations to check Qing expansion.

It has historically been linked with the Muslim Moro people of Mindanao, particularly in the island of Jolo.

He won the majority of 120 seats in the parliament and agreed partnership with the party of the Muslim minorities-Movement for Rights and Freedoms in opposition against the two previously governing parties-the Socialist Party and the Democratic Forces.

The war was already unpopular among Bulgarians themselves, as they were allied with the Muslim Ottomans against their Orthodox Christian neighbours.

It is used to date events in most of the Muslim countries ( concurrently with the Gregorian calendar ), and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Islamic holy days and festivals.

Especially the works of Liu Zhu such as Tiānfāng Diǎnlǐ （ 天方典禮 ） sought to harmonize Islam with not only Confucianism but Daoism and is considered to be one of the crowning achievements of the Chinese Muslim culture.

In collaboration with the Stop the War Coalition and the Muslim Association of Britain, CND has organised anti-war marches under the slogan " Don't Attack Iraq ", including protests on September 28, 2002 and February 15, 2003.

Chiang Kai-shek ( right ) meets with the Muslim Generals Ma Bufang ( second from left ), and Ma Buqing ( first from left ) in Xining at August 1942.

Chiang Kai-shek with the Muslim General Ma Fushou.

Ma Buqing was another Muslim General who fled to Taiwan along with Chiang.

Various estimates of the population have been taken since ; in 1956 it was estimated a population of 1, 411, 416, with 54 % Christian and 44 % Muslim.

Pope Shenouda III constantly met with Muslim leaders in order to create peace.