* The Einstein – Podolsky – Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory ; 1. 2 The argument in the text ; http :// plato. stanford. edu / entries / qt-epr /# 1. 2

* Alcubierre, Miguel ; The Warp Drive: Hyper-Fast Travel Within General Relativity, Classical and Quantum Gravity 11 ( 1994 ), L73 – L77

In 1917, Albert Einstein established the theoretical foundations for the laser and the maser in the paper Zur Quantentheorie der Strahlung ( On the Quantum Theory of Radiation ); via a re-derivation of Max Planck ’ s law of radiation, conceptually based upon probability coefficients ( Einstein coefficients ) for the absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation ; in 1928, Rudolf W. Ladenburg confirmed the existences of the phenomena of stimulated emission and negative absorption ; in 1939, Valentin A. Fabrikant predicted the use of stimulated emission to amplify “ short ” waves ; in 1947, Willis E. Lamb and R. C. Retherford found apparent stimulated emission in hydrogen spectra and effected the first demonstration of stimulated emission ; in 1950, Alfred Kastler ( Nobel Prize for Physics 1966 ) proposed the method of optical pumping, experimentally confirmed, two years later, by Brossel, Kastler, and Winter.

* Hyperdrives allow for faster-than-light travel, but at a rate slow enough ( 1 light year per 3 days, ~ 122c ) to keep the galaxy vast and unknown ; the new Quantum II Hyperdrive, developed by the Puppeteers but not yet released to humans, can cross a light year in just 1. 25 minutes (~ 425, 000c ).

; Quantum chemistry: The application of quantum mechanics to chemistry

* Attila Szabo and Neil S. Ostlund, Modern Quantum Chemistry: Introduction to Advanced Electronic Structure Theory, Dover Publications ; New Ed edition ( 1996 ) ISBN 0-486-69186-1, ISBN 978-0-486-69186-2

In addition, there have been attempts to construct theories for quantities that are notionally similar to probabilities but do not obey all their rules ; see, for example, Free probability, Fuzzy logic, Possibility theory, Negative probability and Quantum probability.

These include A Clockwork Orange, The Snake Pit, Quantum Leap ( TV series ), Stargate, Frances, Requiem for a Dream, the novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest by Ken Kesey as well as the movie adaptation, Melrose Place, A Beautiful Mind, The Caretaker, The Best of Youth, House ; The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath, Shine, The Beverly Hillbillies ( film ), the film version of Girl, Interrupted, Insanitarium, Changeling, Ciao!

Polkinghorne is the author of five books on physics, and 26 on the relationship between science and religion ; his publications include The Quantum World ( 1989 ), Quantum Physics and Theology: An Unexpected Kinship ( 2005 ), Exploring Reality: The Intertwining of Science and Religion ( 2007 ), and Questions of Truth ( 2009 ).

In the Quantum Leap episode " The Great Spontini ", Scott Bakula's character, Dr. Sam Beckett, leaps into an amateur magician in 1974 who aspires to appear on Bill Bixby's The Magician ; however, owing to his partial amnesia, Dr. Beckett, at first, can only recall Bixby's connection with The Incredible Hulk, which had not been made at that time.

Over the course of the series, the viewer is given insight into the nature of the leaping process, in that the person that Sam leaps into is brought to the future at Project Quantum Leap, where he appears to everyone as Sam there ; in one episode, this person, a serial killer, escaped, preventing Sam from leaping until he was returned without incident to Project Quantum Leap.

Non-sequential ionization violates several laws of classical physics ; refer to the Quantum ionization section.

Wigner's friend is a thought experiment proposed by the physicist Eugene Wigner ; it is an extension of the Schrödinger's cat experiment designed as a point of departure for discussing the Quantum mind / body problem.

; Quantum bogosort: An in-joke among some computer scientists is that quantum computing could be used to effectively implement a bogosort with a time complexity of O ( n ).

where and ( the latter is called the anomalous gyromagnetic ratio ; the deviation of the value from 2 is due to Quantum Electrodynamics effects ).

# Max Planck – Origin and Development of the Quantum Theory ; Where Is Science Going?

* Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, Bernard Diu and Franck Laloë, Mecanique quantique ( see also Quantum Mechanics translated from the French by Susan Hemley, Nicole Ostrowsky, and Dan Ostrowsky ; John Wiley & Sons 1982 ) Hermann, Paris, France.

Quantum information specifies the complete quantum state vector ( or equivalently, wavefunction ) of a system, whereas classical information, roughly speaking, only picks out a definite ( pure ) quantum state if we are already given a prespecified set of distinguishable ( orthogonal ) quantum states to choose from ; such a set forms a basis for the vector space of all the possible pure quantum states ( see pure state ).

`` Without any officious and improper interference on the subject, the price of labor or the wages of mechanics will be regulated by the demand for the manufactured article and the value of that which is paid for it ; ;

For we believed that the electrons obeyed the law of mechanics and electrodynamics ; ;

In modern quantum mechanics however, n determines the mean distance of the electron from the nucleus ; all electrons with the same value of n lie at the same average distance.

In 1829 Johnson helped organize a mechanics ' party ticket ; he was elected as a town alderman, and re-elected until he was elected Mayor in 1834.

Self-adjoint operators, where A = A < sup >†</ sup >, play an important role in quantum mechanics ; for example, an observable is always described by a self-adjoint operator.

The result of a die roll is determined by the way it is thrown, according to the laws of classical mechanics ; they are made random by uncertainty due to factors like movements in the thrower's hand.

High-dimensional spaces occur in mathematics and the sciences for many reasons, frequently as configuration spaces such as in Lagrangian or Hamiltonian mechanics ; these are abstract spaces, independent of the physical space we live in.

Many-worlds is often referred to as a theory, rather than just an interpretation, by those who propose that many-worlds can make testable predictions ( such as David Deutsch ) or is falsifiable ( such as Everett ) or by those who propose that all the other, non-MW interpretations, are inconsistent, illogical or unscientific in their handling of measurements ; Hugh Everett argued that his formulation was a metatheory, since it made statements about other interpretations of quantum theory ; that it was the " only completely coherent approach to explaining both the contents of quantum mechanics and the appearance of the world.

Therefore, the change in enthalpy can be devised or represented without the need for compressive or expansive mechanics ; for a simple system, with a constant number of particles, the difference in enthalpy is the maximum amount of thermal energy derivable from a thermodynamic process in which the pressure is held constant.

Whichever axis she uses, she has a 50 % probability of obtaining "+" and 50 % probability of obtaining "−", completely at random ; according to quantum mechanics, it is fundamentally impossible for her to influence what result she gets.

Phenomena that in classical mechanics are ascribed to the action of the force of gravity ( such as free-fall, orbital motion, and spacecraft trajectories ), correspond to inertial motion within a curved geometry of spacetime in general relativity ; there is no gravitational force deflecting objects from their natural, straight paths.

Geotechnical engineering uses principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to investigate subsurface conditions and materials ; determine the relevant physical / mechanical and chemical properties of these materials ; evaluate stability of natural slopes and man-made soil deposits ; assess risks posed by site conditions ; design earthworks and structure foundations ; and monitor site conditions, earthwork and foundation construction.

The instrument boom extending upwards holds, from bottom to top: the cosmic ray subsystem ( CRS ) left, and Low-Energy Charged Particle ( LECP ) detector right ; the Plasma Spectrometer ( PLS ) right ; and the scan platform that rotates about a vertical axis.

Secondary payloads: IMAX Cargo Bay Camera ( ICBC ) to document operations outside crew cabin and hand-held IMAX camera for use inside crew cabin ; Ascent Particle Monitor ( APM ) to detect particulate matter in payload bay ; Protein Crystal Growth ( PCG ) to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity ; Radiation Monitoring Equipment III ( RME III ) to measure gamma ray levels in crew cabin ; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing ( IPMP ) to determine porosity control in microgravity environment ; Shuttle Student involvement program ( SSIP ) experiment to study effects of near-weightlessness on electrical arcs, and Air Force Maui Optical Site ( AMOS ) experiment.

Particle – antiparticle pairs are seen to travel in helices with opposite directions but identical radii, implying that the ratios differ only in sign ; but this does not indicate whether it is the charge or the inertial mass which is inverted.

Particle systems can be either animated or static ; that is, the lifetime of each particle can either be distributed over time or rendered all at once.

; SLED: The Low-Energy Charged Particle Spectrometer was designed to make detailed studies of energetic particle radiation in the Martian environment and monitor low-energy cosmic rays during interplanetary cruise.

ATLAS-1 instruments were: Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy ( ATMOS ); Grille Spectrometer ; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder ( MAS ); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory ( ISO ); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions ( ALAE ); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager ( AEPI ); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators ( SEPAC ); Active Cavity Radiometer ( ACR ); Measurement of Solar Constant ( SOLCON ); Solar Spectrum ( SOLSPEC ); Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor ( SUSIM ); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope ( FAUST ).

USML-2 Experiments included: the Surface Tension Driven Convection Experiment ( STDCE ), the Drop Physics Module, the Drop Dynamics Experiment ; the Science and Technology of Surface-Controlled Phenomena experiment ; the Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell Experiment ; the Crystal Growth Furnace, the Orbital Processing of High Quality Cadmium Zinc Telluride Compound Semiconductors experiment ; the Study of Dopant Segregation Behavior During the Crystal Growth of Gallium Arsenide ( GaAs ) in Microgravity experiment ; the Crystal Growth of Selected II-VI Semiconducting Alloys by Directional Solidification experiment ; the Vapor Transport Crystal Growth of Mercury Cadmium Tellurida in Microgravity experiment ; the Zeolite Crystal Growth Furnace ( ZCG ), the Interface Configuration Experiment ( ICE ), the Oscillatory Thermocapillary Flow Experiment ; the Fiber Supported Droplet Combustion Experiment ; the Particle Dispersion Experiment ; the Single-Locker Protein Crystal Growth experiment ; ( including the Protein Crystallization Apparatus for Microgravity ( PCAM ) and the Diffusion-controlled Crystallization Apparatus for Microgravity ( DCAM )); the Crystal Growth by Liquid-Liquid Diffusion, the Commercial Protein Crystal Growth experiment ; the Advanced Protein Crystallization Facility, Crystallization of Apocrystacyanin C experiment ; Crystal Structure Analysis of the Bacteriophage Lambda Lysozyme, Crystallization of RNA Molecules Under Microgravity Conditions experiment ; Crystallization of the Protein Grb2 and Triclinic Lysozyme experiment ; Microgravity Crystallization of Thermophilic Aspartyl-tRNA Synthetase and Thaumatin experiment ; Crystallization in a Microgravity Environment of CcdB experiment ; A Multivariate Analysis of X-ray Diffraction Data Obtained from Glutathione S Transferase experiment ; Protein Crystal Growth: Light-driven Charge Translocation Through Bacteriorhodopsin experiment ; Crystallization of Ribosome experiment ; Crystallization of Sulfolobus Solfataricus Alcohol Dehydrogenase experiment ; Crystallization of Turnip Yellow Mosaic Virus, Tomato Aspermy Virus, Satellite Panicum Mosaic Virus, Canavalin, Beef Liver Catalase, Concanavalin B experiment ; Crystallization of the Epidermal Growth Factor ( EGF ); Structure of the Membrane-Embedded Protein Complex Photosystem I ; Crystallization of Visual Pigment Rhodopsin ; Commercial Generic Bioprocessing Apparatus ; Astroculture Facility and Experiment.

Another possibility, raised in an essay by the Swedish fantasy writer and editor Rickard Berghorn, is that the name Alhazred was influenced by references to two historical authors whose names were Latinized as Alhazen: Alhazen ben Josef, who translated Ptolemy into Arabic ; and Abu ' Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham, who wrote about optics, mathematics and physics.

Because of its low density and atomic mass, beryllium is relatively transparent to X-rays and other forms of ionizing radiation ; therefore, it is the most common window material for X-ray equipment and in particle physics experiments.

In the 1920s and 1930s almost every major cosmologist preferred an eternal steady state Universe, and several complained that the beginning of time implied by the Big Bang imported religious concepts into physics ; this objection was later repeated by supporters of the steady state theory.

Some grand unified theories of particle physics also predict that a single proton can decay, changing the baryon number by one ; however, this has not yet been observed under experiment.

Some of these constructs, such as space and time, correspond to the way the world is structured by the laws of physics ; for others the correspondence is not as clear.

On November 29, 1921, the trustees declared it to be the express policy of the Institute to pursue scientific research of the greatest importance and at the same time " to continue to conduct thorough courses in engineering and pure science, basing the work of these courses on exceptionally strong instruction in the fundamental sciences of mathematics, physics, and chemistry ; broadening and enriching the curriculum by a liberal amount of instruction in such subjects as English, history, and economics ; and vitalizing all the work of the Institute by the infusion in generous measure of the spirit of research.

" His most-important fourth, " the principle of causality " is based on the " finite velocity of propagation of effects and signals ; contemporary physics rejects the possibility of instantaneous action at a distance.

A number of groups have suggested that this could be the signature of new physics at the greatest observable scales ; other groups suspect systematic errors in the data.

In modern theoretical physics, the Casimir effect plays an important role in the chiral bag model of the nucleon ; and in applied physics, it is significant in some aspects of emerging microtechnologies and nanotechnologies.

In Personal Knowledge, Michael Polanyi argues for the epistemological relevance of knowledge how and knowledge that ; using the example of the act of balance involved in riding a bicycle, he suggests that the theoretical knowledge of the physics involved in maintaining a state of balance cannot substitute for the practical knowledge of how to ride, and that it is important to understand how both are established and grounded.

In physics, the electron volt ( symbol eV ; also written electronvolt ) is a unit of energy equal to approximately joule ( symbol J ).

* http :// physics. nist. gov / cuu / Constants physical constants reference ; CODATA data

Although several versions of many-worlds have been proposed since Hugh Everett's original work, they all contain one key idea: the equations of physics that model the time evolution of systems without embedded observers are sufficient for modelling systems which do contain observers ; in particular there is no observation-triggered wave function collapse which the Copenhagen interpretation proposes.

Explorer satellites have made important discoveries: Earth's magnetosphere and the shape of its gravity field ; the solar wind ; properties of micrometeoroids raining down on the Earth ; much about ultraviolet, cosmic, and X-rays from the solar system and universe beyond ; ionospheric physics ; Solar plasma ; solar energetic particles ; and atmospheric physics.