The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools of Hindu philosophy state that Akasha or ether is the fifth physical substance, which is the substratum of the quality of sound.

The Nyaya metaphysics recognizes sixteen padarthas or categories and includes all six ( or seven ) categories of the Vaisheshika in the second one of them, called prameya.

Two of the six Indian schools of thought deal with logic: Nyaya and Vaisheshika.

Unlike the Nyaya or the Vaisheshika systems, the school recognizes five means of valid knowledge ( Skt.

Among the six systems of Hindu philosophy, early Samkhya and Mimamsa do not consider the concept of Ishvara, i. e., a supreme being, while later Samkhya, Yoga, Vaisheshika, Vedanta and Nyaya believe in the existence of an Ishvara.

The development of Indian logic dates back to the anviksiki of Medhatithi Gautama ( c. 6th century BCE ) the Sanskrit grammar rules of Pāṇini ( c. 5th century BCE ); the Vaisheshika school's analysis of atomism ( c. 2nd century BCE ); the analysis of inference by Gotama ( c. 2nd century ), founder of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy ; and the tetralemma of Nagarjuna ( c. 2nd century CE ).

Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimāṃsā and Vedanta are classified as āstika schools:

Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta.

The Nyaya Sutras of Aksapada Gautama ( c. 2nd century CE ) constitute the core texts of the Nyaya school, one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy.

The Nyaya school, one of six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, states that one of the proofs of the existence of God is karma ; It is seen that some people in this world are happy, some are in misery.

The Nyaya school, one of six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, states that one of the proofs of the existence of God is karma ; It is seen that some people in this world are happy, some are in misery.

The Nyaya – Vaisesika school ( 600 BC-100 BC ) developed one of the earliest forms of atomism, though their proofs of God and their positing that the consciousness was not material precludes labelling them as materialists.

and may go back to earlier Indian views on language, especially the Nyaya view of words as indicators and not carriers of meaning.

The Nyaya school of philosophical speculation is based on texts known as the Nyaya Sutras, which were written by Aksapada Gautama from around the 2nd century BCE.

The most important contribution made by the Nyaya school to modern Hindu thought is its methodology to prove existence of God, based on the Vedas.

He wrote a commentary Sudha Parimala on the Nyaya Sudha, an exposition of Dvaita philosophy.

It is the only place where the first school of logic ( tarkashastra ) in India was set up on the Navya Nyaya system, which produced great logicians in 15th century. The Holy Birth Place of Lord Caitanya Mahaprabhu is known as " Gour Gangar Desh " as well as " Oxford of Bengal ".

The Nyaya school of philosophical speculation is based on texts known as the Nyaya Sutras, which were written by Gotama in around the 2nd century CE.

Matilal secured a Fulbright Fellowship and completed his PhD under Ingalls on the Navya Nyaya doctrine of negation, between 1962 and 1965.

* Samkhyāviśeşāt ( lit., from the specialty of numbers ): According to the Nyaya, the magnitude of a dyad is produced by the number of two atoms.

500 to 100 BCE ) organized knowledge into Sutra treatises, including the Vedanga and the religious or philosophical Brahma Sutras, Yoga Sutras, Nyaya Sutras.

In other words, Nyaya says that the polytheist would have to give elaborate proofs for the existence and origin of his several celestial spirits, none of which would be logical, and that it is more logical to assume one eternal, omniscient god.

However, Nyaya differs from Aristotelian logic in that it is more than logic in its own right.

Perception is defined by Akṣapāda Gautama in his Nyaya Sutra ( I, i. 4 ) as a ' non-erroneous cognition which is produced by the intercourse of sense-organs with the objects, which is not associated with a name and well-defined '.

Nyaya theory distinguishes between know p and know that one knows p – these are different events, with different causal conditions.

Later Indian materialist Jayaraashi Bhatta ( 6th century AD ) in his work Tattvopaplavasimha (" The upsetting of all principles ") refuted the Nyaya Sutra epistemology.

The Nyaya school of Hinduism has made several arguments regarding a monotheistic view.

In the Nyaya Kusumanjali, this is discussed against the proposition of the Mimamsa school that let us assume there were many demigods ( devas ) and sages ( rishis ) in the beginning, who wrote the Vedas and created the world.

See Nyaya for some details of the theory of causation in the Nyaya school.

Nyaya is thus a form of epistemology in addition to logic.

According to the Nyaya school, there are exactly four sources of knowledge ( pramāṇas ): perception, inference, comparison, and testimony.

As a result, Nyaya scholars again went to great pains to identify, in each case, what it took to make knowledge valid, in the process creating a number of explanatory schemes.

In this sense, Nyaya is probably the closest Indian equivalent to contemporary analytic philosophy.

Pratyakṣa ( perception ) occupies the foremost position in the Nyaya epistemology.

Anumāna ( inference ) is one of the most important contributions of the Nyaya.

But the Nyaya school also maintains that the God's grace is essential for obtaining true knowledge.

Vaisheshika or () is one of the six Hindu schools of philosophy ( Vedic systems ) of India.

Indeed, the title character of the sixth century Tamil Buddhist epic Manimekalai is advised at one point to study the various Hindu schools of philosophy, such as Sankhya and Vaisheshika as well as Buddhism, Ajivika, Cārvāka, and Jainism.

Vaisheshika, also Vaisesika, ( Sanskrit: व ै श े ष ि क ) is one of the six Hindu schools of Indian philosophy.

In ancient India, the philosophical schools of Samkhya and Vaisheshika, from around the 6th – 5th century BC, developed theories on light.

It has been claimed that Kashyapa, later known as Kanada ( Sanskrit: कण ा द ; also transliterated as Canada as well as other forms ) was a Hindu sage and philosopher who founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika and authored the text Vaisheshika Sutra.