The early view that " black " and " white " mantas were different species was also discounted through a study of mitochondrial DNA in 2001, which however did reveal some general geographic patterns: Based on limited sampling, west Pacific mantas formed one clade, east Pacific and some Caribbean mantas formed a second clade, and finally the remaining Caribbean mantas formed a third clade.

* Morgan-Richards M., Trewick S. A., Bartosch-Härlid A., Kardailsky O., Phillips M. J., McLenachan P. A., Penny D. ( 2008 ): Bird evolution: testing the Metaves clade with six new mitochondrial genomes.

This superfamily, the Certhioidea, is proposed on phylogenetic studies using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, and was created to cover a clade of ( four or ) five families removed from a larger grouping of passerine birds, the Sylvioidea.

This superfamily, the Certhioidea, is supported by phylogenetic studies using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, and forms a sister clade of the Sylvioidea within the passerine birds.

A study of mitochondrial DNA of the spoonbills plus the Sacred and Scarlet Ibises found that the spoonbills formed a clade with old world genus Threskiornis, with Nipponia nippon and Eudocimus as progressively earlier offshoots and more distant relatives, and hence casts doubt on the arrangement of the family into ibis and spoonbill subfamilies.

A 2011 analysis by Amy Driskell and colleagues of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA found the Broad-billed Fairywren and Campbell's Fairywren to lie in a clade with the two other monospecific New Guinea genera and not with the other species of Malurus.

This superfamily, the Certhioidea was based on phylogenetic studies using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, and was created to cover a clade of four families removed from a larger grouping of passerine birds, the Sylvioidea.

DNA-DNA hybridization placed the Olive Warbler as an early branch of the finch clade ( which included the finches, cardinals and Hawaiian honeycreepers ) and the New World sparrow clade ( which includes the tanagers, icterids and New world warblers ), and a 1998 study of mitochondrial DNA confirmed its status as being far removed from the New world warblers.

The mitochondrial genome has undergone a severe reduction in size in the Alveolate clade.

Since the known ciliate mitochondrial genomes are considerably larger this reduction is genome size must have occurred after their ancestor of this clade diverged from that that gave rise to the extant ciliates.

Phylogenetic analyses of ITS, nuclear large subunit and mitochondrial small subunit rDNA sequences from a variety of North American species has delineated five distinct clades within the core Laetiporus clade ; sulphureus clade I contains white-pored L. sulphureus isolates, while sulphureus clade II contains yellow-pored L. sulphureus isolates.

A study of mitochondrial DNA of the spoonbills found that the Eurasian Spoonbill is sister taxon to a clade containing the Royal and Black-faced Spoonbills.

The findings indicate that based on mitochondrial DNA, Common Ravens from the rest of the United States are more closely related to those in Europe and Asia than to those in the California clade, and that Common Ravens in the California clade are more closely related to the Chihuahuan Raven ( C. cryptoleucus ) than to those in the Holarctic clade.

However, mitochondrial DNA sequence analyses of the cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 genes indicates that it might belong to a very distinct and ancient " duck " clade, together with Hartlaub's Duck, another African species of uncertain affinities.

" Biogeography of the Pistia clade ( Araceae ): Based on chloroplast and mitochondrial DNA sequences and Bayesian divergence time inference "

Phylogenetic analyses of ITS, nuclear large subunit and mitochondrial small subunit rDNA sequences from a variety of North American species have delineated five distinct clades within the core Laetiporus clade:

IAP also normally suppresses the activity of a group of cysteine proteases called caspases, which carry out the degradation of the cell, therefore the actual degradation enzymes can be seen to be indirectly regulated by mitochondrial permeability.

In parallel, these enzymes activate proapoptotic procaspase-8, which does directly activate the mitochondrial events of apoptosis.

In the process of oxidative phosphorylation, which is the principal energy-generating process undertaken by organisms, which need oxygen to survive, other membrane-bound and-soluble complexes and cofactors are involved in the chain of redox reactions, with the additional net effect that protons ( H < sup >+</ sup >) are transported across the mitochondrial inner membrane.

Some mutations affect the gene MFN2, which codes for a mitochondrial protein.

The multiple dispersal model is contradicted by studies indicating that the populations of Eurasia and the populations of Southeast Asia and Oceania are all descended from the same mitochondrial DNA lineages, which support a single migration out of Africa that gave rise to all non-African populations.

By comparing mitochondrial DNA which is inherited only from the mother, geneticists have concluded that the last female common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all modern humans, the so-called mitochondrial Eve, must have lived around 200, 000 years ago.

Three DNA types are of particular interest: mitochondrial DNA that we all possess and that is passed down with only minor mutations through the matrilineal ( direct female ) line ; the Y-chromosome, present only in males, which is passed down with only minor mutations through the patrilineal ( direct male ) line ; and the Autosomal DNA, which is found in the 22 non-gender specific chromosomes ( autosomes ) inherited from both parents, which can uncover relatives from any branch of the family.

Lactic acid build up ( in tissues and blood ) is a sign of inadequate mitochondrial oxygenation, which may be due to hypoxemia, poor blood flow ( e. g., shock ) or a combination of both.

The outer mitochondrial membrane, which encloses the entire organelle, has a protein-to-phospholipid ratio similar to that of the eukaryotic plasma membrane ( about 1: 1 by weight ).

The inner mitochondrial membrane is compartmentalized into numerous cristae, which expand the surface area of the inner mitochondrial membrane, enhancing its ability to produce ATP.

Such studies estimate that at the MAM, which may comprise up to 20 % of the mitochondrial outer membrane, the ER and mitochondria are separated by a mere 10-25 nm and held together by protein tethering complexes.

The association with the cytoskeleton determines mitochondrial shape, which can affect the function as well.

The enzymes of the citric acid cycle are located in the mitochondrial matrix, with the exception of succinate dehydrogenase, which is bound to the inner mitochondrial membrane as part of Complex II.

Instead this mitochondrial genome is arranged in 18 minicircular chromosomes, each of which is 3 – 4 kb long and has one to three genes.

However, the DNA evidence cited above is from mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ), which can often move easily between closely related species (" introgression ") when they hybridize.

This hypothesis was supported by a recent analysis of the Trichoplax adhaerens mitochondrial genome in comparison to those of other animals, The hypothesis was, however, rejected in a statistical analysis of the Trichoplax adhaerens whole genome sequence in comparison to the whole genome sequences of six other animals and two related non-animal species, but only at the p = 0. 07 level, which indicates a marginal level of statistical significance.

Results of a mitochondrial DNA study carried out later suggest that the leopard is closely related to the snow leopard, which is placed as a fifth Panthera species, Panthera uncia.

The HV1 mitochondrial sequence of the male was similar to the Anderson sequence which is most frequent in European populations.

:* Mitochondrial – loci are situated on the mitochondrial DNA

Mitochondrial Eve's haplogroup was within mitochondrial haplogroup L because this macro-haplogroup contains all surviving human mitochondrial lineages today, and she must predate the emergence of L0.

The variation of mitochondrial DNA between different people can be used to estimate the time back to a common ancestor, such as Mitochondrial Eve.

Mitochondrial DNA was discovered in the 1960s by Margit M. K. Nass and Sylvan Nass by electron microscopy as DNase-sensitive thread inside mitochondria, and by Ellen Haslbrunner, Hans Tuppy and Gottfried Schatz by biochemical assays on highly purified mitochondrial fractions.

Mitochondrial diseases are often caused by genetics or mutations to the mitochondrial DNA that affect mitochondria function.

Mitochondrial disorders may be caused by mutations, acquired or inherited, in mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ) or in nuclear genes that code for mitochondrial components.

Mitochondrial DNA, however, is strictly inherited from the mother and each mitochondrial organelle typically contains multiple mtDNA copies ( see Heteroplasmy ).

Mitochondrial DNA studies also showed evidence that the San people carry high frequencies of the earliest haplogroup branches in the human mitochondrial DNA tree.

* Mitochondrial encephalopathy — Metabolic disorder caused by dysfunction of mitochondrial DNA.

The misinterpretations of " Mitochondrial Eve " are a case in point: it may be hard to explain that a " mitochondrial Eve " was not the only woman of her time.

Mitochondrial DNA, therefore, can be used to trace matrilineal inheritance and to find the Mitochondrial Eve ( also known as the African Eve ), the most recent common ancestor of all human via the mitochondrial DNA pathway.

In 1999, his book The Mitochondrial Free Radical Theory of Aging was published, in which he writes that obviating damage to mitochondrial DNA might by itself extend lifespan significantly, though he said it was more likely that cumulative damage to mitochondria is a significant cause of senescence, but not the single dominant cause.

# Mitochondrial myopathy, a mitochondrial disease

Mitochondrial DNA, therefore, can be used to trace matrilineal inheritance and to find the Mitochondrial Eve ( also known as the African Eve ), the most recent common ancestor of all humans via the mitochondrial DNA pathway.