This detail is informed by the fact that Alexandria, because of its man-made bidirectional port between the mainland and the Pharos island, welcomed trade from the East and West, and soon found itself the international hub for trade, as well as the leading producer of papyrus and, soon enough, books.

According to the Greek historian Herodotus, Xerxes's first attempt to bridge the Hellespont ended in failure when a storm destroyed the flax and papyrus cables of the bridges ; Xerxes ordered the Hellespont ( the strait itself ) whipped three hundred times and had fetters thrown into the water.

Some Greek words have given rise to etymological doublets, being borrowed both through an organic, indirect route, and a learned, direct route into English: anthem and antiphon ( αντίφωνα ), frantic and frenetic ( φρενετικός ), butter and butyr ( ic ) ( βούτυρον ), bishop and episcop ( al ) ( επίσκοπος ), balm and balsam ( βάλσαμον, probably itself a borrowing from Semitic ), blame and blasphemy ( βλασφήμος ), box and pyx ( is ) ( πύξις ), choir and chorus ( χορός ), trivet and tripod ( τρίπους / τρίποδ -), slander and scandal ( σκάνδαλον ), oil, olive, oleum, and elaeo-( έλαιον ); almond and amygdala ( αμυγδάλη ); dram and drachma ( δραχμή ); paper and papyrus ( πάπυρος ); carat and keratin ( κέρας, κέρατ -).

The lotus and papyrus clump occur in association with Hapy, the god of the crucial life-giving annual Nile inundation, who binds their stems together around an offering table in the sema-tawi motif – itself echoing the shapes of the ' akhet ' of the horizon.

Probably the earliest surviving New Testament manuscript, Rylands Library Papyrus P52 is a Greek papyrus fragment discovered in Egypt in 1920 ( now at the John Rylands Library, Manchester ).

Papyrus scrolls comprised the collection, and although codices were used after 300 BC, the Alexandrian Library is never documented as having switched to parchment, perhaps because of its strong links to the papyrus trade.

Papyrus () is a thick paper-like material produced from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus, a wetland sedge that was once abundant in the Nile Delta of Egypt.

These documents provide important information on ancient writings ; they give us the only extant copy of Menander, the Egyptian Book of the Dead, Egyptian treatises on medicine ( the Ebers Papyrus ) and on surgery ( the Edwin Smith papyrus ), Egyptian mathematical treatises ( the Rhind papyrus ), and Egyptian folk tales ( the Westcar papyrus ).

Papyrus plant Cyperus papyrus at Kew Gardens, London

Papyrus is made from the stem of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus.

The procedures were documented on papyrus and were the first to describe patient case files ; the Edwin Smith Papyrus ( held in the New York Academy of Medicine ) documents surgical procedures based on anatomy and physiology, while the Ebers Papyrus describes healing based on magic.

The earliest known writings on the circulatory system are found in the Ebers Papyrus ( 16th century BCE ), an ancient Egyptian medical papyrus containing over 700 prescriptions and remedies, both physical and spiritual.

The execution was recorded in an Aramaic papyrus document ( Papyrus Brooklyn 13 ).

Papyrus plant ( Cyperus papyrus ) at Kew Gardens, London

Papyrus sedge ( and its close relatives ) has a very long history of use by humans, notably by the Ancient Egyptians — it is the source of papyrus paper, parts of it can be eaten, and the highly buoyant stems can be made into boats.

Photosynthesis in Papyrus ( Cyperus papyrus L .), Photosynthetica.

Standing biomass and carbon distribution in a papyrus ( Cyperus Papyrus L ) swamp on Lake Naivasha, Kenya.

Papyrus swamp development in the Upemba Basin, Zaire: Studies of population structure in Cyperus papyrus stands.

The 110-page Ebers Papyrus, an Egyptian medical papyrus which dates to roughly 1550 BC, also makes reference to the tracheotomy.

In 1874 he edited the celebrated medical papyrus ( Papyrus Ebers ) which he had discovered in Thebes ( translation by H. Joachim, 1890 ).

" He also says that the " Tulli Papyrus ", cited by von Däniken in one of his books, is likely cribbed from the Book of Ezekiel, and quoted Dr. Nolli ( through Dr. Walter Ramberg, Scientific Attache at the U. S. embassy in Rome ), then current Director of the Egyptian Section of the Vatican Museum, as " suspect that Tulli was taken in and that the papyrus is a fake.

The Egyptian Rhind papyrus of 1800BC gives the area of a circle as ( 64 / 81 ) < sup > 2 </ sup >, where is the diameter of the circle, and pi approximated to 256 / 81, a number that appears in the older Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, and used for volume approximations ( i. e. hekat ( volume unit )).

The Ebers Papyrus, also known as Papyrus Ebers, is an Egyptian medical papyrus dating to c. 1550 BCE.

The papyrus is in the collection of the Royal Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, and is about 50 ft long.

Parchment was developed in Pergamon, from which name it is believed the word " parchment " evolved, under the patronage of either Eumenes I, who ruled 263 – 241 BCE ; or Eumenes II, who ruled 197 – 158 ), as a substitute for papyrus, which was temporarily not being exported from Alexandria, its only source.

He ruled from c. 1860 BC to c. 1814 BC, the latest known date being found in a papyrus dated to Regnal Year 46, I Akhet 22 of his rule.

* Rohl also asserts that the record in the Ebers papyrus of the rising of Sirius in the ninth regnal year of Amenhotep I, which is used in conventional chronology to fix that year to either 1542 BC or 1517 BC, has been misread, and instead should be understood as evidence for a reform in the Egyptian calendar.

Moreover, in 20th century was found a papyrus has returned about three-quarters of a satirical drama of dating unknown, The Seekers Tracks ( or I Hounds ).

The most important document to survive from this pharaoh's rule is Papyrus Harris I, which honours the life of his father, Ramesses III, by listing the latter's many accomplishments and gifts to the temples of Egypt, and the Turin papyrus, the earliest known geologic map.

He found time nevertheless for Egyptological work of the highest value, including a hieroglyphical grammar and dictionary, translations of The Book of the Dead and papyrus Harris I, and numerous catalogues and guides.

Le papyrus Harris I ( BM 9999 ).

Le papyrus Harris I: Glossaire.

Amyrtaeus was defeated in open battle by his successor, Nepherites I of Mendes, and executed at Memphis, an event which the Aramaic papyrus Brooklyn 13 implies occurred in October 399 BC.

In a papyrus announcement a man speaks of his brother " with whom I have no koinonia ", meaning no business connection or common interest.

The ' far-away light ' () is a reference to St Elmo's Fire, an electrical discharge supposed by ancient Greek mariners to be an epiphany of the Dioscuri, but the meaning of the line was obscured by gaps in the papyrus until reconstructed by a modern scholar — such reconstructions are typical of the extant poetry ( see Scholars, fragments and sources below ).

In the swamp regions of north-east Africa papyrus and associated plants, including the soft-wooded ambach, flourish in immense quantities, and little else is found in the way of vegetation.

The Heroninos Archive is the name given to a huge collection of papyrus documents, mostly letters, but also including a fair number of accounts, which come from Roman Egypt in 3rd century AD.

His famous example of this is using ancient Egypt and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus.

In fact, any combination of codices and scrolls on the one hand with papyrus and parchment on the other is technically feasible and well attested from the historical record.

Skeat “… in at least three cases and probably in all, in the form of codices " and he theorized that this form of notebook was invented in Rome and then “… must have spread rapidly to the Near East …” In his discussion of one of the earliest pagan parchment codices to survive from Oxyrhynchus in Egypt, Eric Turner seems to challenge Skeat ’ s notion when stating “… its mere existence is evidence that this book form had a prehistory ” and that “ early experiments with this book form may well have taken place outside of Egypt .” Early codices of parchment or papyrus appear to have been widely used as personal notebooks, for instance in recording copies of letters sent ( Cicero Fam.

As far back as the early 2nd century, there is evidence that the codex — usually of papyrus — was the preferred format among Christians: in the library of the Villa of the Papyri, Herculaneum ( buried in AD 79 ), all the texts ( Greek literature ) are scrolls ( see Herculaneum papyri ); in the Nag Hammadi " library ", secreted about AD 390, all the texts ( Gnostic Christian ) are codices.

There is reference on a Greek papyrus from 163 BCE to the procedure being conducted on girls in Memphis, the ancient Egyptian capital, and Strabo ( c. 64 BCE – c. 23 CE ), the Greek geographer, reported it when he visited Egypt in 25 BCE.

Problem 50 of the Ahmes papyrus uses these methods to calculate the area of a circle, according to a rule that the area is equal to the square of 8 / 9 of the circle's diameter.

Conversely, the Ebers papyrus ( c. 1550 BC ) is full of incantations and foul applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons, and other superstition.

Others show him as a sage who is seated on a chair with a roll of papyrus on his knees or under his arm.

' He is represented seated with a papyrus scroll across his knees, wearing a skullcap and a long linen kilt.

* 1962 – The Derveni papyrus, Europe's oldest surviving manuscript dating to 340 BC, is found in northern Greece.

Parchment, or vellum as the best type of parchment is known had also replaced papyrus, which was not nearly so long lived and has survived to the present only in the extremely dry conditions of Egypt, although it was widely used across the Roman world.

Nag Hammadi is best known for being the site where local farmers found a sealed earthenware jar containing thirteen leather-bound papyrus codices, together with pages torn from another book, in December 1945.

The oldest surviving epic poem is the Epic of Gilgamesh, from the 3rd millennium BC in Sumer ( in Mesopotamia, now Iraq ), which was written in cuneiform script on clay tablets and, later, papyrus.

The removal ( or " sealing up ") of the leaven is referred to in the Elephantine papyri, an Aramaic papyrus from 5th century BCE Elephantine in Egypt.

Because parchment, prepared from animal hides, is far more durable than paper or papyrus, most palimpsests known to modern scholars are parchment, which rose in popularity in western Europe after the 6th century.

Chemically, papyrus is composed of 57 % cellulose, 27 % lignin, 9 % minerals, and 7 % water.