* 1922 – Imre Lakatos, Hungarian philosopher ( d. 1974 )

* February 2 – Imre Lakatos, Hungarian philosopher ( b. 1922 )

Up until that time MacIntyre had been a relatively influential analytic philosopher of a Marxist bent whose inquiries into moral philosophy had been conducted in a “ piecemeal way, focusing first on this problem and then on that, in a mode characteristic of much analytic philosophy .” However, after reading the works of Thomas Kuhn and Imre Lakatos on philosophy of science and epistemology MacIntyre was inspired to change the entire direction of his thought, tearing up the manuscript he had been working on and deciding to view the problems of modern moral and political philosophy “ not from the standpoint of liberal modernity, but instead from the standpoint of ... Aristotelian moral and political practice .”

Proofs and Refutations is a book by the philosopher Imre Lakatos expounding his view of

The philosopher of science Karl Popper repeatedly rejects and criticizes instrumentalism in Conjectures and Refutations, perhaps regarding it as too mechanical:

The critical function of cultural relativism is widely understood ; philosopher John Cook observed that " It is aimed at getting people to admit that although it may seem to them that their moral principles are self-evidently true, and hence seem to be grounds for passing judgement on other peoples, in fact, the self-evidence of these principles is a kind of illusion ".

Recently, the Université de Montréal political philosopher Charles Blattberg has put forward a series of arguments aimed at integrating Québécois nationalism within a renewed Canadian federalism, one that recognizes Canada's multi-national character.

The Constitution is heavily influenced by the French philosopher Montesquieu, whose separation of powers was aimed at achieving mutual monitoring of each of the branches of government.

The British philosopher Simon Blackburn has criticized this formulation by suggesting that we do not want to accept as knowledge beliefs, which, while they " track the truth " ( as Nozick's account requires ), are not held for appropriate reasons.

Though the concept of observing a subject from different points in space and time simultaneously ( multiple or mobile perspective ) developed by Metzinger and Gleizes was not derived directly from Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, it was certainly influenced in a similar way, through the work of Jules Henri Poincaré ( particularly Science and Hypothesis ), the French mathematician, theoretical physicist and philosopher of science, who made many fundamental contributions to algebraic topology, celestial mechanics, quantum theory and made an important step in the formulation of the theory of special relativity.

The formulation goes back to the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles, and the theologian William Paley set out a variation on this argument in 1802, to refute ( in later pages ) a claim that there had been a wide range of initial creations, with less viable forms eliminated by nature to leave the modern range of species:

One of the earliest uses of the trilemma formulation is that of the Greek philosopher Epicurus, rejecting the idea of an omnipotent and omnibenevolent God ( as summarised by David Hume ):

A 17th century Latin translation Philosophus Autodidactus ( published by Edward Pococke ) of the Arabic philosophical novel Hayy ibn Yaqzan by the 12th century Andalusian-Islamic philosopher and novelist Ibn Tufail ( known as " Abubacer " or " Ebn Tophail " in the West ) had an influence on John Locke's formulation of tabula rasa in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding.

Mainly through John Gough, a blind philosopher and polymath to whose informal instruction he owed much of his scientific knowledge, Dalton was appointed teacher of mathematics and natural philosophy at the " New College " in Manchester, a dissenting academy.

According to Pickover, the mathematics behind fractals began to take shape in the 17th century when the mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz pondered recursive self-similarity ( although he made the mistake of thinking that only the straight line was self-similar in this sense ).

Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein ( 26 April 1889 – 29 April 1951 ) was an Austrian-British philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language.

The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer designates this " inner nature " with the term Will, and suggests that science and mathematics are unable to penetrate beyond the relationship between one thing and another in order to explain the " inner nature " of the thing itself, independent of any external causal relationships with other " things ".

Oswald Manuel Arnold Gottfried Spengler ( 29 May 1880 – 8 May 1936 ) was a German historian and philosopher whose interests also included mathematics, science, and art.

** Kurt Gödel, Austrian logician, mathematician, and philosopher of mathematics ( d. 1978 )

AD 350 – 370 – March 415 ) ( ; ; Hypatía ) was a Greek Neoplatonist philosopher in Roman Egypt who was the first historically noted woman in mathematics.

Unusual for a professional philosopher, his only degree is an undergraduate degree from Harvard, in mathematics.

Ramsey theory, named after the British mathematician and philosopher Frank P. Ramsey, is a branch of mathematics that studies the conditions under which order must appear.

Hypatia ( c. 370 – 415 ), was Greek scholar and philosopher considered the first notable woman in mathematics.

One of the ways in which he made use of mathematics as a philosopher was to attempt to disprove the eternity of the world by demonstrating that actual infinity is a mathematical and logical absurdity .< ref >

It is the philosopher who contemplates about science and mathematics who is released from the " cycle of birth.

* Charles Parsons ( philosopher ) ( born 1933 ), professor in the philosophy of mathematics at Harvard University

[...] I think that he is at heart a physicist, or perhaps a ‘ natural philosopher ’, not a mathematician, and that the reason he does not like the proposals for orienting the secondary school college preparatory mathematics curriculum to the diverse needs of the twentieth century by making use of some concepts developed in mathematics in the last hundred years or so is not that this is bad mathematics, but that it minimizes the importance of physics.

French psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, and Bulgarian-French philosopher Julia Kristeva have been accused of misusing mathematics in their work ; see Fashionable Nonsense ( 1998 ) by Alan Sokal and Jean Bricmont.

Grete ( Henry -) Hermann (* March 2, 1901 in Bremen, † April 15, 1984 in Bremen ) was a German mathematician and philosopher noted for her work in mathematics, physics, philosophy and education.

Paul Joseph Salomon Benacerraf ( born 1931 ) is an American philosopher working in the field of the philosophy of mathematics who has been teaching at Princeton University since he joined the faculty in 1960.

Oscar Becker ( 5 September 1889 in Leipzig-13 November 1964 in Bonn ) was a German philosopher, logician, mathematician, and historian of mathematics.

* Michael Resnik ( born 1938 ), philosopher of mathematics and decision theory

D. in mathematics at New York University in 1949 under the supervision of J. J. Stoker, he taught mathematics there but evolved into a logician and philosopher of mathematics, in good part because of the influence of Georg Kreisel.

While he was at it, the philosopher of the Kremlin contributed an additional assist to the rule of reason by bellowing at those in the west who can't appreciate coexistence thru suicide.

The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist and philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, and has become a major topic for psychologists ( especially evolutionary psychology researchers ), evolutionary biologists, and ethologists.

Although controversial at its time, the 13 principles laid out by the 12th century Spanish Jewish philosopher Maimonides are now considered mostly normative.

The stone was given its name by Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher and naturalist, who discovered the stone along the shore line of the river Achates () sometime between the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.

Those such as James A. Weisheipl and Joachim R. Söder have referred to him as the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the Middle Ages, an opinion supported by contemporaries such as Roger Bacon.

During his tenure he publicly defended the Dominicans against attacks by the secular and regular faculty of the University of Paris, commented on St John, and answered what he perceived as errors of the Arabian philosopher Averroes.

An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding is a book by the Scottish empiricist philosopher David Hume, published in 1748.

The brunt of this chapter allegedly narrates the opinions, not of Hume, but of one of Hume's anonymous friends, who again presents them in an imagined speech by the philosopher Epicurus.

This account, supported by biologist E. O. Wilson and philosopher Michael Ruse, proposes that the human experience of morality is a by-product of natural selection, a theory philosopher Mark D. Linville calls evolutionary naturalism.

The criterion was first proposed by philosopher of science Karl Popper.

Another view, as important to the philosophy of art as " beauty ," is that of the " sublime ," elaborated upon in the twentieth century by the postmodern philosopher Jean-François Lyotard.

Alexander of Hales ( c. 1185 — 1245 ) ( also Halensis, Alensis, Halesius, Alesius ) also called Doctor Irrefragibilis ( by Pope Alexander IV in the Bull De Fontibus Paradisi ) and Theologorum Monarcha was a theologian and philosopher important in the development of Scholasticism and of the Franciscan School.

Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz ( Hebrew: עדין שטיינזלץ ) or Adin Even Yisrael ( Hebrew: עדין אבן ישראל ) ( born 1937 ) is a teacher, philosopher, social critic, and spiritual mentor, who has been hailed by Time magazine as a " once-in-a-millennium scholar ".

The Therapeutae, pagan ascetic hermits and loosely organized cenobitic communities described by the Hellenized Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria in the first century, were long established in the harsh environments by Lake Mareotis close to Alexandria, and in other less-accessible regions.

Instead, the philosopher encounters a problem :" Now, if the ' to be ' of a thing could be conceived apart from that which exists, it should be represented in our mind by some note distinct from the concept of the thing itself ....

Bundle theory, originated by the 18th century Scottish philosopher David Hume, is the ontological theory about objecthood in which an object consists only of a collection ( bundle ) of properties, relations or tropes.

With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher.

Basic English, also known as Simple English, is an English-based controlled language created ( in essence as a simplified subset of English ) by linguist and philosopher Charles Kay Ogden as an international auxiliary language, and as an aid for teaching English as a Second Language.

The philosopher and astronomer Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra ( c. 1140 ) established the symmetry of binomial coefficients, while a closed formula was obtained later by the talmudist and mathematician Levi ben Gerson ( better known as Gersonides ), in 1321.

* The Characters, a book by the Greek philosopher Theophrastus

This approach was first proposed by the philosopher Edmund Husserl, and later elaborated by other philosophers and scientists.

The French philosopher Voltaire was also influenced by Confucius, seeing the concept of Confucian rationalism as an alternative to Christian dogma.