* John Austin ( legal philosopher ) ( 1790 – 1859 ), English jurist

In 1805, English instructor and natural philosopher John Dalton used the concept of atoms to explain why elements always react in ratios of small whole numbers ( the law of multiple proportions ) and why certain gases dissolved better in water than others.

After 1890 came philosopher Josiah Royce ( 1855 – 1916 ), botanist Liberty Hyde Bailey ( 1858 – 1954 ), the Southern Agrarians of the 1920s and 1930s, novelist John Steinbeck ( 1902 – 1968 ), historian A. Whitney Griswold ( 1906 – 1963 ), environmentalist Aldo Leopold ( 1887 – 1948 ), Ralph Borsodi ( 1886 – 1977 ), and present-day authors Wendell Berry ( b. 1934 ), Gene Logsdon ( b. 1932 ), Paul Thompson, and Allan C. Carlson ( b. 1949 ).

* 1686 – John Balguy, English philosopher ( d. 1748 )

During his tenure he publicly defended the Dominicans against attacks by the secular and regular faculty of the University of Paris, commented on St John, and answered what he perceived as errors of the Arabian philosopher Averroes.

* 1632 – John Locke, English philosopher and physician ( d. 1704 )

The American philosopher and educator John Dewey became impressed with the Alexander technique after his headaches, neck pains, blurred vision, and stress symptoms largely improved during the time he used Alexander's advice to change his posture.

British philosopher John Locke argued that moral rules cannot be established from conscience because the differences in people's consciences would lead to contradictions.

Later, when Watterson was creating names for the characters in his comic strip, he allegedly decided upon Calvin ( after the Protestant reformer John Calvin ) and Hobbes ( after the social philosopher Thomas Hobbes ) as a " tip of the hat " to the political science department at Kenyon.

Hedonism, for example, teaches that this feeling is pleasure — either one's own, as in egoism ( the 17th-century English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ), or everyone's, as in universalistic hedonism, or utilitarianism ( the 19th-century English philosophers Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, and Henry Sidgwick ), with its formula of the " greatest pleasure of the greatest number.

Other utilitarian-type views include the claims that the end of action is survival and growth, as in evolutionary ethics ( the 19th-century English philosopher Herbert Spencer ); the experience of power, as in despotism ( the 16th-century Italian political philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli and the 19th-century German Friedrich Nietzsche ); satisfaction and adjustment, as in pragmatism ( 20th-century American philosophers Ralph Barton Perry and John Dewey ); and freedom, as in existentialism ( the 20th-century French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre ).

For example, philosopher John D. Kenyon writes: Reason might manage to raise a doubt about the truth of a conclusion of natural inductive inference just for a moment in the study, but the forces of nature will soon overcome that artificial skepticism, and the sheer agreeableness of animal faith will protect us from excessive caution and sterile suspension of belief.

Other names connected to the city include Max Born, physicist and Nobel laureate ; Charles Darwin, the biologist who discovered natural selection ; David Hume, a philosopher, economist and historian ; James Hutton, regarded as the " Father of Geology "; John Napier inventor of logarithms ; chemist and one of the founders of thermodynamics Joseph Black ; pioneering medical researchers Joseph Lister and James Young Simpson ; chemist and discoverer of the element nitrogen, Daniel Rutherford ; mathematician and developer of the Maclaurin series, Colin Maclaurin and Ian Wilmut, the geneticist involved in the cloning of Dolly the sheep just outside Edinburgh.

The most famous early practitioner of progressive education was Francis Parker ; its best-known spokesperson was the philosopher John Dewey.

That same year, philosopher John Dewey moved from the University of Michigan to the newly established University of Chicago where he became chair of the department of philosophy, psychology and education.

John Locke, a leading philosopher of British empiricism

This is desirable according to philosopher John Ralston Saul who claims that a state of " permanent psychological discomfort " can serve as a prerequisite to, or even as equivalent to, consciousness itself.

* 1744 – John Theophilus Desaguliers, French philosopher ( b. 1683 )

* 1921 – John Rawls, American philosopher ( d. 2002 )

He served as research assistant for libertarian Republican Congressman Ron Paul in Paul's first term ( 1976 ), and he shared a small office with the staunchly Calvinistic political philosopher, John W. Robbins, who later became a noted anti-Van Til, pro-Clark presuppositional apologist, author, and publisher.

In naval warfare, the fleet of the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I ( r. 491 – 518 ) is recorded by the chronicler John Malalas as having utilized a sulphur-based mixture to defeat the revolt of Vitalian in AD 515, following the advice of a philosopher from Athens called Proclus.

* 1930 – John Lemmon, English logician and philosopher ( d. 1966 )

* 1952 – John Dewey, American philosopher and theorist ( b. 1859 )

" An exception is analytic philosopher John Searle, who called it an incorrect assumption which produces false dichotomies.

American philosopher John Searle argued in 1990 that " The spread of ' poststructuralist ' literary theory is perhaps the best known example of a silly but noncatastrophic phenomenon.

As summarized by philosopher John Searle, de Saussure established that ' I understand the sentence " the cat is on the mat " the way I do because I know how it would relate to an indefinite — indeed infinite — set of other sentences, " the dog is on the mat ," " the cat is on the couch ," etc.

* July 31 – John Searle, American philosopher

I sometimes felt, paradoxically, closer to Austin analytic philosopher than to a certain Continental tradition from which Searle, on the contrary, has inherited numerous gestures and a logic I try to deconstruct.

* John Searle ( 1932 –), philosopher

In a 1977 response to analytic philosopher John Searle, Jacques Derrida mentioned the distinction as " rather laborious and problematical ".

An example of this rhetorical strategy is attributed to Michel Foucault by John Searle, regarding philosopher Jacques Derrida: " Michel Foucault once characterized Derrida's prose style to me as " obscurantisme terroriste.

The idea that mental functions can be described as information processing models has been criticised by philosopher John Searle and mathematician Roger Penrose who both argue that computation has some inherent shortcomings which cannot capture the fundamentals of mental processes.

Since the 1970s philosopher John Searle has called for major changes to tenure systems, calling the practice " without adequate justification.

" ( This argument, that a computer can't have conscious experiences or understanding would be made in 1980 by philosopher John Searle in his Chinese room argument.

* John Searle, philosopher

As philosopher John R. Searle writes:

American philosopher John Searle wrote that " Chomsky's work is one of the most remarkable intellectual achievements of the present era, comparable in scope and coherence to the work of Keynes or Freud.

The late R. G. Collingwood, a philosopher whose work has proved helpful to many students of literature, once wrote ``::

The German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.

The term was originally coined in the 19th century by the founding sociologist and philosopher of science, Auguste Comte, and has become a major topic for psychologists ( especially evolutionary psychology researchers ), evolutionary biologists, and ethologists.

Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz ( Hebrew: עדין שטיינזלץ ) or Adin Even Yisrael ( Hebrew: עדין אבן ישראל ) ( born 1937 ) is a teacher, philosopher, social critic, and spiritual mentor, who has been hailed by Time magazine as a " once-in-a-millennium scholar ".

The work of French philosopher and social theorist, Michel Foucault has been utilized in a variety of disciplines, such as history, philosophy, anthropology, sociology, psychology, and linguistics.

Philosopher Max Stirner, in his book The Ego and Its Own, was the first philosopher to call himself an egoist, though his writing makes clear that he desired not a new idea of morality ( ethical egoism ), but rather a rejection of morality ( amoralism ), as a nonexistent and limiting “ spook ”; for this, Stirner has been described as the first individualist anarchist.

In one response to Gettier, the American philosopher Richard Kirkham has argued that the only definition of knowledge that could ever be immune to all counterexamples is the infallibilist one.

The Indian philosopher B K Matilal has drawn on the Navya-Nyaya fallibilism tradition to respond to the Gettier problem.

The American philosopher Robert Nozick has offered the following definition of knowledge:

The British philosopher Simon Blackburn has criticized this formulation by suggesting that we do not want to accept as knowledge beliefs, which, while they " track the truth " ( as Nozick's account requires ), are not held for appropriate reasons.

The Britannica has an Editorial Board of Advisors, which includes 12 distinguished scholars: author Nicholas Carr, religion scholar Wendy Doniger, political economist Benjamin M. Friedman, Council on Foreign Relations President Emeritus Leslie H. Gelb, computer scientist David Gelernter, Physics Nobel laureate Murray Gell-Mann, Carnegie Corporation of New York President Vartan Gregorian, philosopher Thomas Nagel, cognitive scientist Donald Norman, musicologist Don Michael Randel, Stewart Sutherland, Baron Sutherland of Houndwood, President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and cultural anthropologist Michael Wesch.

He has also written many of his own studies of the philosopher.

As a result, according to philosopher Steven Crowell, defining existentialism has been relatively difficult, and he argues that it is better understood as a general approach used to reject certain systematic philosophies rather than as a systematic philosophy in itself.

Here alone is preserved a summary of the writings of the Phoenician priest Sanchuniathon of which the accuracy has been shown by the mythological accounts found on the Ugaritic tables, here alone is the account from Diodorus Siculus's sixth book of Euhemerus ' wondrous voyage to the island of Panchaea where Euhemerus purports to have found his true history of the gods, and here almost alone is preserved writings of the neo-Platonist philosopher Atticus along with so much else.

French philosopher Henri Bergson's Matter and Memory ( 1896 ) has been cited as anticipating the development of film theory during the birth of cinema.

* The Third Policeman and The Dalkey Archive by Flann O ' Brien contains not only quotes from the works of a fictitious Irish philosopher named de Selby, but also has numerous footnotes and references to other fictitious authors writing about de Selby and his books.

The period from 900 to 200 BCE has been described by historians as the axial age, a term coined by German philosopher Karl Jaspers.

The thought of German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche has been influential in individualist anarchism specifically in thinkers such as the French Émile Armand, the Italian Renzo Novatore, the Colombian Biofilo Panclasta, and also " translations of Nietzsche's writings in the United States very likely appeared first in Liberty, the anarchist journal edited by Benjamin Tucker ".

Egoist philosopher Max Stirner has been called a proto-existentialist philosopher while at the same time is a central theorist of individualist anarchism

The early 19th century philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, posthumously regarded as the father of existentialism, maintained that the individual solely has the responsibilities of giving one's own life meaning and living that life passionately and sincerely, in spite of many existential obstacles and distractions including despair, angst, absurdity, alienation, and boredom.

Although the number of individuals sincerely espousing solipsism has been small, it is not uncommon for one philosopher to accuse another's arguments of entailing solipsism as an unwanted consequence, in a kind of reductio ad absurdum.

Being an individual man is a thing that has been abolished, and every speculative philosopher confuses himself with humanity at large ; whereby he becomes something infinitely great, and at the same time nothing at all.

Reflecting his immense influence on 20th-century thought, Hilda Neatby, in 1953, wrote " Dewey has been to our age what Aristotle was to the later middle ages, not a philosopher, but the philosopher.