WNV also infects various mammal species, including humans, and has been identified in reptilian species, including alligators and crocodiles, and also in amphibians.

In the event of being bitten by an infected mosquito, familiarity of the symptoms of WNV on the part of laypersons, physicians and allied health professionals affords the best chance of receiving timely medical treatment which may aid in reducing associated possible complications and also appropriate palliative care.

WNV has now spread globally, with the first case in the Western Hemisphere being identified in New York City in 1999 ; over the next 5 years, the virus spread across the continental United States, north into Canada, and southward into the Caribbean Islands and Latin America.

The first appearance of WNV in the Western Hemisphere was in 1999 with encephalitis reported in humans, dogs, cats, and horses, and the subsequent spread in the United States may be an important milestone in the evolving history of this virus.

WNV is now considered to be an endemic pathogen in Africa, Asia, Australia, the Middle East, Europe and in the United States, which in 2012 has experienced one of its worst epidemics.

West Nile virus ( WNV ) is a mosquito-borne zoonotic arbovirus belonging to the genus Flavivirus in the family Flaviviridae.

WNV has been found in various species of ticks, but current research suggests they are not important vectors of the virus.

U. S. West Nile virus ( WNV ) Neuroinvasive Disease incidence.

Studies of phylogenetic lineages determined WNV emerged as a distinct virus around 1000 years ago.

The West Nile virus ( WNV ) is transmitted through female mosquitoes, which are the prime vectors of the virus.

Studies have shown it can specifically modulate the immune response during early virus infection, and mosquito feeding can exacerbate WNV infection, leading to higherviremia and more severe forms of disease.

WNV was first isolated from a feverish 37-year-old woman at Omogo in the West Nile District of Uganda in 1937 during research on yellow fever virus.

The majority of analysis has been carried out using West Nile virus ( WNV ) to study the function the 3 ' UTR.

** West Nile virus ( WNV )

Prior to the mid 1990s, WNV disease occurred only sporadically and was considered a minor risk for humans, until an outbreak in Algeria in 1994, with cases of WNV-caused encephalitis, and the first large outbreak in Romania in 1996, with a high number of cases with neuroinvasive disease.

The Barbary macaque, Macaca sylvanus, was the first nonhuman primate to contract WNV.

Recently, the potential for mosquito saliva to impact the course of WNV disease was demonstrated.

One study found that neuroinvasive WNV infection was associated with an increased risk for subsequent kidney disease.

It was subsequently identified in Egypt ( 1942 ) and India ( 1953 ), a 1950 serosurvey in Egypt found 90 % of those over 40 years in age had WNV antibodies.

Currently 8 secondary structures have been identified within the 3 ' UTR of WNV and are ( in the order in which they are found with the 3 ' UTR ) SL-I, SL-II, SL-III, SL-IV, DB1, DB2 and CRE.

The main mode of WNV transmission is via various species of mosquitoes which are the prime vector, with birds being the most commonly infected animal and serving as the prime reservoir host-especially passerines which are of the largest order ( Passeriformes ) of birds.

Not all animal species which are susceptible to WNV infection – humans included, and not all bird species develop sufficient viral levels to transmit the disease to uninfected mosquitoes, and are thus not considered major factors in WNV transmission.

Currently, no vaccine against WNV infection is available.

The best method to reduce the rates of WNV infection is mosquito control on the part of municipalities, businesses and individual citizens to reduce breeding populations of mosquitoes in public, commercial and private areas via various means including eliminating standing pools of water where mosquitoes breed, such as in old tires, buckets, disused swimming pools, etc.

The incubation period for WNV – the amount of time from infection to symptom onset – is typically from between 2 – 15 days.

Headache can be a prominent symptom of WNV fever, meningitis, encephalitis, menigoencephalitis and it may or may not be present in poliomyelytis-like syndrome thus headache is not a useful indicator of neuroinvasive disease.

" WNV is now the most common cause of epidemic viral encephalitis in the United States, and it will likely remain an important cause of neurological disease for the foreseeable future.

* West Nile poliomyelitis ( WNP ), an acute flaccid paralysis syndrome associated with WNV infection, is less common than WNM or WNE.

The paralysis can occur in the absence of fever, headache, or other common symptoms associated with WNV infection.

* Nonneurologic complications of WNV infection that may rarely occur include fulminant hepatitis, pancreatitis, myocarditis, rhabdomyolysis, orchitis, nephritis, optic neuritis and cardiac dysrhythmias and hemorrhagic fever with coagulopathy.

Punctate erythematous, macular, and papular eruptions, most pronounced on the extremities have been observed in WNV cases and in some cases histopathologic findings have shown a sparse superficial perivascular lymphocytic infiltrate, a manifestation commonly seen in viral exanthems.

A literature review provides support that this punctate rash is a common cutaneous presentation of WNV infection.

WNV is one of the Japanese encephalitis antigenic serocomplex of viruses.

The first year's projects should also be spread through several countries in Latin America, Africa and Asia.

There was reason to believe that Premier Khrushchev was also concerned about a possible spread of nuclear weapons, particularly to Communist China.

In states where a quantum mechanical particle is bound, it must be localized as a wave packet, and the existence of the packet and its minimum size implies a spread and minimal value in particle wavelength, and thus also momentum and energy.

It has also been recently suggested that the rapid climatic collapse, marking the Akkadian Dark Age, may have been responsible for the religiously prescribed prohibition against the raising and consumption of pigs that spread through the Ancient Middle East from the end of the third millennium BC.

Samuel Clemens ( Mark Twain ) is also known to have spread the story while lecturing, personalizing it by adding " I have a higher and greater standard of principle.

After his death from cancer in 1941 his manuscripts were curated by his linguist friends who also worked to spread the influence of Whorf's ideas on the relation between language, culture and cognition.

It is also common for writers to include psychological tactics behind the line, using Fifth columnists to spread rumours and untruths among the civil population in the theatre of operations.

Depending on lung infection, or sanitary conditions, plague also can be spread in the air, by direct contact, or by contaminated undercooked food or materials.

BC proved more popular there and also spread to other English-speaking countries.

It can also be used as a flavouring for soups, stews or porridge, or spread on bread, especially toast, rather like Marmite.

Saint Bruno of Querfurt ( c. 974 – February 14, 1009 ), also known as Brun and Boniface, is a sainted missionary bishop and martyr, who was beheaded near the border of Kievan Rus and Lithuania while trying to spread Christianity in Eastern Europe.

This practice also spread to street names, names of parks and buildings and some more trivial features.

Its influence also spread to Korea and Japan.

Such acts of recognition of a saint were authoritative, in the strict sense, only for the diocese or ecclesiastical province for which they were issued, but with the spread of the fame of a saint, were often accepted elsewhere also.

The disease may also be spread through blood transfusion and organ transplantation, ingestion of food contaminated with parasites, and from a mother to her fetus.

Chagas disease can also be spread congenitally ( from a pregnant woman to her baby ) through the placenta, and accounts for approximately 13 % of stillborn deaths in parts of Brazil.

It is also useful in killing any cancerous cells that have spread to other parts of the body.

Colonial practices also spur the spread of languages, literature and cultural institutions.

In the southeast, in eastern South Africa, Swaziland, Lesotho, Zimbabwe, and southern Mozambique, they were adopted from a Tuu language or languages by the languages of the Nguni cluster ( especially Zulu, Xhosa, and Phuthi, but also to a lesser extent Swazi and Ndebele ), and spread from them in a reduced fashion to the Zulu-based pidgin Fanagalo, Sesotho, Tsonga, Ronga, the Mzimba dialect of Tumbuka, and more recently to Ndau and urban varieties of Pedi, where the spread of clicks is an ongoing process.

Its influence has also spread widely outside East Asia, and is amongst the most translated works in world literature.

Lip-rounding is also built into the system, so that front vowels ( such as e, a ) have spread or neutral lip postures, but the back vowels ( such as ) have more marked lip-rounding as vowel height increases.

DECT also provides Frequency-hopping spread spectrum over TDMA / TDD structure.

On September 8, Schuyler sent Allen and Massachusetts Major John Brown, who had also been involved in the capture of Ticonderoga, into the countryside between St. John and Montreal to spread the word of their arrival to the habitants and the Indians.

Synchrotron radiation can also be used for cooling the electron beams, which reduces the momentum spread of the particles.