The quantum Hall effect was discovered by Klaus von Klitzing in 1980 when he observed the Hall conductivity to be integer multiples of a fundamental constant.

( see figure ) The effect was observed to be independent of parameters such as the system size and impurities, and in 1981, theorist Robert Laughlin proposed a theory describing the integer states in terms of a topological invariant called the Chern number.

If one used Planck's energy quanta, and demanded that electromagnetic radiation at a given frequency could only transfer energy to matter in integer multiples of an energy quantum hν, then the photoelectric effect could be explained very simply.

The effect of the prefixes is to multiply or divide the unit by a factor of ten, one hundred or an integer power of one thousand.

The quantum Hall effect ( or integer quantum Hall effect ) is a quantum-mechanical version of the Hall effect, observed in two-dimensional electron systems subjected to low temperatures and strong magnetic fields, in which the Hall conductivity σ takes on the quantized values

The quantum Hall effect is referred to as the integer or fractional quantum Hall effect depending on whether ν is an integer or fraction respectively.

The integer quantum Hall effect is very well understood, and can be simply explained in terms of single-particle orbitals of an electron in a magnetic field ( see Landau quantization ).

It is also very well understood as an integer quantum Hall effect, not of electrons but of charge-flux composites known as composite fermions.

In 2007, the integer quantum Hall effect was reported in graphene at temperatures as high as room temperature, and in the oxide ZnO-Mg < sub > x </ sub > Zn < sub > 1-x </ sub > O.

There are an infinite number of irrational reciprocal pairs that differ by an integer ( giving the curious effect that the pairs share their infinite mantissa ).

This has the effect of keeping the middle bits ; the < var > I </ var >- number of least significant integer bits, and the < var > Q </ var >- number of most significant fractional bits.

The Dirac string acts as the solenoid in the Aharonov-Bohm effect, and the requirement that the position of the Dirac string should not be observable implies the Dirac quantization rule: the product of a magnetic charge and an electric charge must always be an integer multiple of.

This level is responsible for the anomalous integer quantum Hall effect.

As in the integer quantum Hall effect, a series of plateaus form in the Hall resistance.

In my own company, in effect a partnership, although legally a corporation, I have been able to do many things for my employees which `` normal '' corporations of comparable size and nature would have been unable to do.

As mass dealer and distributor organizations grow in size, there is every reason to expect them to try to share in the manufacturer's as well as the distributor's profits -- which is, in effect, what the sale of private brands tends to do.

Further, the corpuscular radiation, i.e., the solar-wind protons, must sputter away the surface atoms of the dust and cause a slow diminution in size, with a resultant increase in both the Poynting-Robertson effect and the ratio of the repulsive force to the gravitational force.

The solar-electromagnetic- and corpuscular-radiation pressure and the associated Poynting-Robertson effect increase in effectiveness as the particle size decreases and modify the distribution and limit sizes to larger than a few microns.

a discovery are also high ) and effect size ( when the effect is

Power analysis is often applied in the context of ANOVA in order to assess the probability of successfully rejecting the null hypothesis if we assume a certain ANOVA design, effect size in the population, sample size and significance level.

A non-standardized measure of effect size with meaningful units may

Eta-squared is a biased estimator of the variance explained by the model in the population ( it estimates only the effect size in the sample ).

Additional to such natural biochemical stimuli, the breasts can become enlarged consequent to an adverse side effect of combined oral contraceptive pills ; and the size of the breasts can also increase and decrease in response to the body weight fluctuations of the woman.

A collective trauma is a traumatic psychological effect shared by a group of people of any size, up to and including an entire society.

In fact, at separations of 10 nm — about 100 times the typical size of an atom — the Casimir effect produces the equivalent of 1 atmosphere of pressure ( 101. 325 kPa ), the precise value depending on surface geometry and other factors.

As every cumann was entitled to three votes to selection conventions irrespective of size, a large number of cumainn became in effect " paper cumainn " only used to ensure an aspiring or sitting candidate got enough votes.

Possibly related to the Flynn effect is a similar change of skull size and shape during the last 150 years.

For example, while genes play a role in determining an organism's size, the nutrition and health it experiences after inception also have a large effect.

In addition to these critical items, the equipment used to assemble the cartridge also has an effect on its uniformity / consistency and optimal shape / size ; dies used to size the cartridges can be matched to the chamber of a given gun.

( Based on the figures produced by binomial effect size display or BESD.

However, the data set post-1985 ( which is widely regarded as a turning point in the Ganzfeld experiments ) remains statistically significant and has an inclining effect size regression.

PEAR founder Robert G. Jahn and his colleague Brenda Dunne say that the effect size in all cases was found to be very small, but consistent across time and experimental designs, resulting in an overall statistical significance.

It analyzed the results of 380 studies ; the authors reported an overall positive effect size that was statistically significant but very small relative to the sample size and could be explained by publication bias.

Often, therefore, there are a number of rules having the same effect, and commonly other sets of rules as well, having the opposite effect.

After the sun sets and the temperature drops, the warm wall will then continue to transfer heat to the interior for several hours due to the time lag effect.

The sets used by HTML and XHTML / XML are slightly different, but these differences have little effect on the average document author.

In particular, phenomena such as kin selection and eusociality, where organisms act altruistically, against their individual interests ( in the sense of health, safety or personal reproduction ) to help related organisms reproduce, can be explained as gene sets " helping " copies of themselves ( or sequences with the same phenotypic effect ) in other bodies to replicate.

An optical effect might be used to place actors or sets against a different background.

An agreement that went into effect in July 1991 sets duty-free quotas and places limits on certain items -- mainly milk products, tobacco, and alcoholic beverages.

Certain areas of the town were selected to be used as sets in the filming of 1992's Universal Soldier, supposedly due to the extremely low purchase price and poor condition of several buildings, including an old motel, which were blown up for cinematic effect.

He has advanced an ' alternative ' to Moore's law ( May's law ) stated as follows: Software efficiency halves every 18 months, compensating Moore's Law He goes on to state In ubiquitous systems, halving the instructions executed can double the battery life and big data sets bring big opportunities for better software and algorithms: Reducing the number of operations from N x N to N x log ( N ) has a dramatic effect when N is large ... for N = 30 billion, this change is as good as 50 years of technology improvements

Jaffe noted that the low-tech method of suspending actors by wires helped the final effect, because as photographed by John Fante, very few wires had to be removed digitally in postproduction ; sets were constructed so that the harsh lighting obscured wires, and entire sets were constructed on their sides so that by pulling actors up and down on the rotated sets, the characters appeared to float sideways.

These sets were on gimbals so that the movement of the actors and sets created a floating effect.

Cheaper sets may use ceramic filters ( which also exploit the piezoelectric effect ), or tuned LC circuits.

One effect is that Scottish flags are rarer than might be expected amongst both sets of supporters ; Celtic fans are more likely to wave the Irish tricolour while Rangers fans tended to wave the Union Flag.

This can be as simple as a sound effect being mistimed or a microphone not working, but frequently involves doorknobs ( and doors ) not working or breaking, props and sets being improperly prepared, as well as props working in ways they should not work.

Vincent Canby of The New York Times described it as " a movie that is, in effect, a feature-length, two-reel comedy — something very special and eccentric and funny ", even though toward the end " a certain monotony sets in " with Allen's comedy rhythm.

Even if we able to minimize the effect of instrumental and atmospherical components ( e. g. using a spacecraft ), there are still several astrophysical components contributing to the sky background: these could be sets of point sources like faint asteroids, Galactic stars and far away galaxies, as well as diffuse sources like dust in the Solar System, in the Milky Way, and in the intergalactic space.

Many aspects of the staging contributed to this effect: both the auditorium and stage were lit during performances, while the sets mirrored almost exactly the architecture of the palace hosting the opera.

In other instruction sets, a NOP has to be simulated by executing an instruction having operands that cause the same effect ( e. g., on the SPARC processor, the instruction is the recommended solution ).

The War Powers Resolution, which is still in effect, sets forth certain requirements for the President to consult with Congress in regard to decisions that engage U. S. forces in hostilities or imminent hostilities.

" Combinatoriality is a side effect of derived rows where combining different segments or sets such that the pitch-class content of the result fulfills certain criteria, usually the combination of hexachords which complete the full chromatic.

Kaminski eliminated the Clever Hans effect using a strict protocol: each of the 200 items whose names Rico knew was randomly assigned to one of 20 sets of 10 items.