Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself.

However, in 2009, the family authorities decided not to agree to DNA testing.

" The DNA testing was originally proposed to add new members, many of whose family record books were lost during 20th-century upheavals, to the Confucian family tree.

Output from a cDNA DNA microarray | microarray used in testing

CMT can be diagnosed through symptoms, through measurement of the speed of nerve impulses ( electromyography ), through biopsy of the nerve, and through DNA testing.

DNA testing can give a definitive diagnosis, but not all the genetic markers for CMT are known. CMT is first noticed when someone develops lower leg weakness and foot deformities such as foot drop, hammertoes and high arches.

In 2007, Echols petitioned for a retrial based on a statute permitting post-conviction testing of DNA evidence due to technological advances made since 1994 which might provide exoneration for the wrongfully convicted.

As reported in the journal Science, testing of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA by Warren Johnson and Stephen O ' Brien of the U. S. National Cancer Institute demonstrated that ancient cats evolved into eight main lineages that diverged in the course of at least 10 migrations ( in both directions ) from continent to continent via the Bering land bridge and Isthmus of Panama, with the Panthera genus being the oldest and the Felis genus being the youngest.

On the other hand, since the advent of DNA testing to verify parentage, most breed registries now allow artificial insemination ( AI ), embryo transfer ( ET ), or both.

In 2010, bones were discovered in the ruins of a Bulgarian church and two years later, after DNA and radio carbon testing proved the bones belonged to a Middle Eastern man who lived in the first century AD, scientists said that the remains could conceivably have belonged to John the Baptist.

After the rumors surfaced that Bay's natural father was a filmmaker, there was much speculation about Frankenheimer, who continued to deny the story and told the Los Angeles Times that there had once been " tests " to determine paternity ( long before DNA testing ).

In the era before blood and DNA testing, Landis relied on witness testimony and awarded the child to Ryan.

DNA testing indicates resident males nearly always mate with females from other pods.

* DNA testing of the Saint Luke corpse

DNA testing linked Albert to genetic material taken from the bite marks and from semen in Perhach's underwear.

However, the Y-chromosome and mtDNA ( mitochondrial DNA ) testing processes for direct-line male and female ancestors can fail to pick up the heritage of many ancestors.

( Some critics thought the PBS series did not sufficiently explain the limitations of DNA testing for assessment of heritage.

DNA testing has limitations and should not be depended on by individuals to answer all their questions about heritage.

No tribes accept DNA testing to satisfy their differing qualifications for membership, usually based on documented blood quantum or descent from ancestor ( s ) listed on the Dawes Rolls.

DNA testing is not sufficient to qualify a person for specific tribal membership, as it cannot distinguish among Native American groups.

Some tribes have begun requiring genealogical DNA testing, but this is usually related to an individual's proving parentage or direct descent from a certified member.

Berg was frustrated by the expense of teaching students about recombinant DNA from textbooks instead of in wet labs, used for the testing and analysis of chemicals, drugs, and other materials or biological matter.

A team of 24 identified the victims using full-body X-rays, dental examinations, fingerprinting, blood tests, and DNA testing.

These include DNA cloning for sequencing, DNA-based phylogeny, or functional analysis of genes ; the diagnosis of hereditary diseases ; the identification of genetic fingerprints ( used in forensic sciences and paternity testing ); and the detection and diagnosis of infectious diseases.

The large size and complexity of PKD1 and PKD2 genes, as well as marked allelic heterogeneity, present obstacles to molecular testing by direct DNA analysis.

The order is clearly circumscribed on the basis of DNA sequence analysis, but is difficult to define morphologically, since its members are structurally diverse.

Abzymes are potential tools in biotechnology, e. g., to perform specific actions on DNA.

* Base pair, a pair of connected nucleotides on complementary DNA and RNA strands

In 1998 the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny of flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants.

While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along more efficient, evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so.

Instead it generates the sequences of many thousands of small DNA fragments ( ranging from 35 to 900 nucleotides long, depending on the sequencing technology ).

In molecular biology and genetics, the linking between two nitrogenous bases on opposite complementary DNA or certain types of RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds is called a base pair ( often abbreviated bp ).

Other chemicals, known as DNA intercalators, fit into the gap between adjacent bases on a single strand and induce frameshift mutations by " masquerading " as a base, causing the DNA replication machinery to skip or insert additional nucleotides at the intercalated site.

Most of the biosecurity concerns in synthetic biology, however, focused on the role of DNA synthesis and the risk of producing genetic material of lethal viruses ( e. g. 1918 Spanish flu, polio ) in the lab.

Though there is some debate on the exact mechanism of conjugation it seems that the pili are not the structures through which DNA exchange occurs.

The amount of chromosomal DNA that is transferred depends on how long the two conjugating bacteria remain in contact.

All known forms of life are based on the same fundamental biochemical organisation: genetic information encoded in DNA, transcribed into RNA, through the effect of protein-and RNA-enzymes, then translated into proteins by ( highly similar ) ribosomes, with ATP, NADH and others as energy sources, etc.

In prokaryotes, DNA is usually arranged as a loop, which is tightly coiled in on itself, sometimes accompanied by one or more smaller, circular DNA molecules called plasmids.

The overall structure depends on the stage of the cell cycle: during interphase the chromatin is structurally loose to allow access to RNA and DNA polymerases that transcribe and replicate the DNA.

The local structure of chromatin during interphase depends on the genes present on the DNA: DNA coding genes that are actively transcribed (" turned on ") are more loosely packaged and are found associated with RNA polymerases ( referred to as euchromatin ) while DNA coding inactive genes (" turned off ") are found associated with structural proteins and are more tightly packaged ( heterochromatin ).

The single most convincing evidence of the descent of organelles from bacteria is the position of mitochondria and plastid DNA sequences in phylogenetic trees of bacteria.

Recent DNA analysis have revealed that Y chromosomes, tracing male descent, are 87 % Scandinavian.

The studies show that mitochondrial DNA, tracing female descent, is 84 % Scottish / Irish.

Shared sequences of apparently non-functional DNA are a major line of evidence of common descent.

This study, under the Taino genome project started in 1999 through a grant from the National Science Foundation, tested mitochondrial DNA throughout the island, identifying that-10 percent of Puerto Ricans today are of Amerindian descent.

This works because, along any particular line of descent, mitochondrial DNA accumulates mutations at the rate of approximately one every 3, 500 years.

Other women alive at Eve's time have descendants alive today, but sometime in the past, each of their lines of descent included at least one male, thereby breaking the mitochondrial DNA lines of descent.

The ability to analyse sequence in macromolecules ( protein, DNA, RNA ) provides evidence of descent, and permits us to work out genealogical trees covering the whole of life, since now there are data on every major group of living organisms.

Genealogical DNA test results of modern Rurikid princes indicate that Rurik was of Finno-Ugrian descent ( haplogroup N1c1 )., however the Rurikids do not possess the DYS390 = 24 mutation associated with the Finnic languages, theirs remaining the ancestral DYS390 = 23, with the Rurikid haplotype itself ( all values considered ) more closely associated with

The construction of Great Zimbabwe is claimed too by the Lemba, an ethnic group with a tradition of ancient Jewish or South Arabian descent through their male line, which is supported by recent DNA studies, and female ancestry derived from the Karanga subgroup of the Shona ; the Lemba maintain that their male forebears came in ships from a distant country in order to obtain gold.

In 2009, the results of a DNA test read by Mariah Carey on Lopez Tonight revealed Lopez to be of 55 % European ( Spanish ), 32 % Native American, 9 % East Asian, and 4 % African descent.

In addition, the DNA evidence has established his descent from Ormus de Davenport, of Cheshire, and also his relationship to the present day Lord Bromley Davenport.

A more practical and useful cooperative approach to defining the Celts is the contemporary inclusive and associative definition used by Vincent and Ruth Megaw ( 1996 ) and Raimund Karl ( 2010 ) that a Celt is someone who uses a Celtic language or produces or uses a distinctive Celtic cultural expression ( such as art or music ) or has been referred to as a Celt in historical materials or has identified themselves or been identified by others as a Celt or has a demonstrated descent from the Celts ( such as family history or DNA ancestry ).

With the recent popularity of genealogical DNA testing, a wider circle of people started to claim descent from the great conqueror.

Recent DNA analyses have revealed that Y chromosomes, tracing male descent, are 87 % Scandinavian.

The studies show that mitochondrial DNA, tracing female descent, is 84 % Celtic.

However, recent Y chromosome DNA testing conducted by the University of Leicester and the Pompeu Fabra University has indicated that around 20 % of Spanish men today have direct patrilineal descent from Sephardic Jews.

Mitochondria are inherited from one's mother, and its DNA is frequently used to trace maternal lines of descent ( see mitochondrial Eve ).

Recent DNA evidence however suggests descent from the McCartans, another County Down clan, whose spiritual home lay in the townland of Guinness near Ballynahinch, County Down.