The medieval Islamic scientists were not far behind, as they understood the actual mechanism of bird flight.

The complexity of this law served as an impetus behind the development of algebra ( Arabic: al-jabr ) by the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī and other medieval Islamic mathematicians.

Native Chinese astronomy flourished during the Song Dynasty, and during the Yuan Dynasty became increasingly influenced by medieval Islamic astronomy.

At around the same time in the medieval Islamic world, a vigorous monetary economy was created during the 7th – 12th centuries on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency ( the dinar ).

The medieval philosopher Thomas Aquinas, perhaps following the Islamic philosopher Avicenna, argued that God is pure being, and that in God essence and existence are the same.

Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour to be mechanized and driven by machinery to some extent in the medieval Islamic world.

During what is often referred to as the Islamic Golden Age, in order for a scholar to be qualified to issue a fatwā, it was required that he obtained an ijazat attadris wa ' l-ifta (" license to teach and issue legal opinions ") from a Madrassah in the medieval Islamic legal education system, which was developed by the 9th century during the formation of the Madh ' hab legal schools.

Some modern scholars, such as Fielding H. Garrison, are of the opinion that modern geology began in the medieval Islamic world.

From then on Galen and the Greek medical tradition in general became assimilated into the medieval and early modern Islamic Middle East.

Other historians urge caution regarding claims of Islamic firearms use in the 1204-1324 period as late medieval Arabic texts used the same word for gunpowder, naft, that they used for an earlier incendiary naptha.

This evolved into the medieval Islamic Bimaristan hospitals.

conquered by the Arab Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century AD, and became a center of the Islamic Golden Age during the medieval Abbasid Caliphate.

The four schools of medieval shari ' a ( Islamic law ) disagreed on what punishment is appropriate for liwat.

Anecdotal literature reinforces this impression of general societal acceptance of the public celebration of male-male love ( which hostile Western caricatures of Islamic societies in medieval and early modern times simply exaggerate ).

* Homosexuality in Urdu poetry: Tolerance in medieval India and early Islamic societies

In a commentary of the hadith Sahih Muslim, entitled al-Minhaj, the medieval Islamic scholar Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi stated that " one of the collective duties of the community as a whole ( fard kifaya ) is to lodge a valid protest, to solve problems of religion, to have knowledge of Divine Law, to command what is right and forbid wrong conduct ".

Ibn al-Nadim's bibliography Fihrist demonstrates the devotion of medieval Muslim scholars to books and reliable sources ; it contains a description of thousands of books circulating in the Islamic world circa 1000, including an entire section for books about the doctrines of other religions.

Some of the earliest recorded speculations linked mind ( sometimes described as identical with soul or spirit ) to theories concerning both life after death, and cosmological and natural order, for example in the doctrines of Zoroaster, the Buddha, Plato, Aristotle, and other ancient Greek, Indian and, later, Islamic and medieval European philosophers.

Early writing on mineralogy, especially on gemstones, comes from ancient Babylonia, the ancient Greco-Roman world, ancient and medieval China, and Sanskrit texts from ancient India and the ancient Islamic World.

Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of Greek, classical Indian, Sassanian, Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western European astronomy.

Ottoman science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars ' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass.

In the medieval Islamic Caliphate, a form of passport was used in the form of a bara ' a, a receipt for taxes paid.

Though the Napoleonic code was among the first government acts of modern times to introduce the notion of absolute ownership into statute, protection of personal property rights was present in medieval Islamic law and jurisprudence, and in more feudalist forms in the common law courts of medieval and early modern England.

Works from the medieval Muslim world included Ibn Wahshiyya's Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarī's ( 828 – 896 ) the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassal's The Classification of Soils.

In a historical or geopolitical sense the term usually refers collectively to Christian majority countries or countries in which Christianity dominates or was a territorial phenomenon .“ Christendom is originally a medieval concept steadily to have evolved since the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the gradual rise of the Papacy more in religio-temporal implication practically during and after the reign of Charlemagne ; and the concept let itself to be lulled in the minds of the staunch believers to the archetype of a holy religious space inhabited by Christians, blessed by God, the Heavenly Father, ruled by Christ through the Church and protected by the Spirit-body of Christ ; no wonder, this concept, as included the whole of Europe and then the expanding Christian territories on earth, strengthened the roots of Romance of the greatness of Christianity in the world .”

" Christendom " has referred to the medieval and renaissance notion of the Christian world as a sociopolitical polity.

Besides the gastraphetes, the ancient world knew a variety of mechanical hand-held weapons similar to the later medieval crossbow.

Aelian's work is one of the sources of medieval natural history and of the bestiaries of the Middle Ages ; in some ways an allegory of the moral world, an Emblem Book.

Scarce dyestuffs that produced brilliant and permanent colors such as the natural invertebrate dyes Tyrian purple and crimson kermes were highly prized luxury items in the ancient and medieval world.

The portion of the Greek Arithmetica that survived, however, was, like all ancient Greek texts transmitted to the early modern world, copied by, and thus known to, medieval Byzantine scholars.

A medieval T and O map from 1472 showing the division of the world into 3 continents

Military heraldry continues developing, incorporating blazons unknown in the medieval world.

The correspondence she kept with the outside world, both spiritual and social, transgressed the cloister as a space of female confinement, and served to document Hildegard ’ s grand style and strict formatting of medieval letter writing.

This is known as the classical period of Indian history, during which time India has sometimes been estimated to have had the largest economy of the ancient and medieval world, with its huge population generating between one fourth and one third of the world's income up to the 18th century.

The Mongols held Russia and Volga Bulgaria in sway from their western capital at Sarai, one of the largest cities of the medieval world.

The transfer of debt, which was " not permissible under Roman law but became widely practiced in medieval Europe, especially in commercial transactions ", was due to the large extent of the " trade conducted by the Italian cities with the Muslim world in the Middle Ages ".

Hegel attributes the change to the " modern " need to interact with the world, whereas ancient philosophers were self-contained, and medieval philosophers were monks.

A somewhat disinterested treatment of the emotional subject and painstaking attention to the throne and other details of the material world distinguish this work by a medieval Sicily | Sicilian master from works by imperial icon-painters of Constantinople.

The medieval T-O map represents the inhabited world as described by Isidore in his Etymologiae.

What is known is that the medieval Arab world called the south-western Indian Ocean island region Waqwaq.

He also saw in the history of medieval European cities the rise of a unique form of " non-legitimate domination " that successfully challenged the existing forms of legitimate domination ( traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal ) that had prevailed until then in the Medieval world.

The Albeck edition of the Mishnah was vowelized by Hanokh Yellin, who made careful eclectic use of both medieval manuscripts and current oral traditions of pronunciation from Jewish communities all over the world.

A failure in logistics often resulted in famine and disease for the medieval world, with corresponding deaths and loss of morale.