The medieval Islamic scientists were not far behind, as they understood the actual mechanism of bird flight.

The complexity of this law served as an impetus behind the development of algebra ( Arabic: al-jabr ) by the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī and other medieval Islamic mathematicians.

Native Chinese astronomy flourished during the Song Dynasty, and during the Yuan Dynasty became increasingly influenced by medieval Islamic astronomy.

At around the same time in the medieval Islamic world, a vigorous monetary economy was created during the 7th – 12th centuries on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency ( the dinar ).

The medieval philosopher Thomas Aquinas, perhaps following the Islamic philosopher Avicenna, argued that God is pure being, and that in God essence and existence are the same.

Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour to be mechanized and driven by machinery to some extent in the medieval Islamic world.

During what is often referred to as the Islamic Golden Age, in order for a scholar to be qualified to issue a fatwā, it was required that he obtained an ijazat attadris wa ' l-ifta (" license to teach and issue legal opinions ") from a Madrassah in the medieval Islamic legal education system, which was developed by the 9th century during the formation of the Madh ' hab legal schools.

Some modern scholars, such as Fielding H. Garrison, are of the opinion that modern geology began in the medieval Islamic world.

From then on Galen and the Greek medical tradition in general became assimilated into the medieval and early modern Islamic Middle East.

Other historians urge caution regarding claims of Islamic firearms use in the 1204-1324 period as late medieval Arabic texts used the same word for gunpowder, naft, that they used for an earlier incendiary naptha.

This evolved into the medieval Islamic Bimaristan hospitals.

conquered by the Arab Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century AD, and became a center of the Islamic Golden Age during the medieval Abbasid Caliphate.

The four schools of medieval shari ' a ( Islamic law ) disagreed on what punishment is appropriate for liwat.

Anecdotal literature reinforces this impression of general societal acceptance of the public celebration of male-male love ( which hostile Western caricatures of Islamic societies in medieval and early modern times simply exaggerate ).

* Homosexuality in Urdu poetry: Tolerance in medieval India and early Islamic societies

In a commentary of the hadith Sahih Muslim, entitled al-Minhaj, the medieval Islamic scholar Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi stated that " one of the collective duties of the community as a whole ( fard kifaya ) is to lodge a valid protest, to solve problems of religion, to have knowledge of Divine Law, to command what is right and forbid wrong conduct ".

Ibn al-Nadim's bibliography Fihrist demonstrates the devotion of medieval Muslim scholars to books and reliable sources ; it contains a description of thousands of books circulating in the Islamic world circa 1000, including an entire section for books about the doctrines of other religions.

Some of the earliest recorded speculations linked mind ( sometimes described as identical with soul or spirit ) to theories concerning both life after death, and cosmological and natural order, for example in the doctrines of Zoroaster, the Buddha, Plato, Aristotle, and other ancient Greek, Indian and, later, Islamic and medieval European philosophers.

Early writing on mineralogy, especially on gemstones, comes from ancient Babylonia, the ancient Greco-Roman world, ancient and medieval China, and Sanskrit texts from ancient India and the ancient Islamic World.

Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of Greek, classical Indian, Sassanian, Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western European astronomy.

Ottoman science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars ' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass.

Though the Napoleonic code was among the first government acts of modern times to introduce the notion of absolute ownership into statute, protection of personal property rights was present in medieval Islamic law and jurisprudence, and in more feudalist forms in the common law courts of medieval and early modern England.

Ancient Arabs also used election to choose their caliph, Uthman and Ali, in the early medieval Rashidun Caliphate ; and to select the Pala king Gopala in early medieval Bengal.

Changes in costume often took place at times of economic or social change ( such as in ancient Rome and the medieval Caliphate ), but then a long period without major changes followed.

Reaching a peak production of 200 t per year, an estimated silver stock of 10, 000 t circulated in the Roman economy in the middle of the second century AD, five to ten times larger than the combined amount of silver available to medieval Europe and the Caliphate around 800 AD.

The first wave of real " modern " historians, especially scholars on Rome and the medieval period, such as Edward Gibbon, contended that had Charles fallen, the Umayyad Caliphate would have easily conquered a divided Europe.

Similar views were held by a number of Arabic writers during the time of the medieval Caliphate period.

Hai Gaon was the head of the Talmudic Academy of Pumbedita during the era of the Abbasid Caliphate, where the modern city of Fallujah, Iraq is located. Hai ben Sherira ( or Hai b. Sherira ( Gaon ), Hebrew: האי גאון בר שרירא ; better known as Hai Gaon, Hebrew: האיי גאון ), was a medieval Jewish theologian, rabbi and scholar who served as Gaon of the Talmudic academy of Pumbedita during the early 11th century.

Geonim (; also transliterated Gaonim ) were the presidents of the two great Babylonian, Talmudic Academies of Sura and Pumbedita, in the Abbasid Caliphate, and were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the Jewish community world wide in the early medieval era, in contrast to the Resh Galuta ( Exilarch ) who wielded secular authority over the Jews in Islamic lands.

The town of Caffa in the Crimea was called the capital of the medieval slave trade, but an overland route to Caliphate of Córdoba took pagan and dualist Slavs from Kiev through Lviv and Prague, at that time the borderlands of Christianity, this arduous land route competing with the North-South route by river which led to the Black Sea.

The Greek populations generally remained in these areas of the Caliphate and helped translate ancient Greek works into Arabic, thus contributing to early Islamic philosophy and science in medieval Islam, which in turn contributed to Byzantine science.

It is a very traditional form of the language, probably derived from medieval deeds and documents, and has a very complicated structure and vocabulary which is generally reserved only for such documents.

The ballad probably derives its name from medieval French dance songs or " ballares " ( from which we also get ballet ), as did the alternative rival form that became the French Ballade.

In late medieval England, congregations regularly received Communion only at Easter ; and otherwise individual lay people might expect to receive Communion only when gravely ill, or in the form of a Nuptial Mass on being married.

Cranmer's work of simplification and revision was also applied to the Daily Offices, which were to become Morning, and Evening Prayer ; and which he hoped would also serve as a daily form of prayer to be used by the Laity, thus replacing both the late medieval lay observation of the Latin Hours of the Virgin, and its English equivalent, the Primer.

One medieval European example in textile form is the Bayeux Tapestry.

Precursors of the form existed by the 1920s, which saw a revival of the medieval woodcut tradition by Belgian Frans Masereel, American Lynd Ward and others.

Cervantes wrote his work in a form of Old Castilian, the medieval form of the Spanish language.

The uppercase form of epsilon looks essentially identical to Latin E. The lowercase version has two typographical variants, both inherited from medieval Greek handwriting.

When his influential pseudo-history made it to Continental Europe, writers altered the name further until it finally took on the popular form Excalibur ( various spellings in the medieval Arthurian Romance and Chronicle tradition include: Calabrun, Calabrum, Calibourne, Callibourc, Calliborc, Calibourch, Escaliborc, and Escalibor ).

The Estampie (, Occitan and, ) is a medieval dance and musical form, it was a popular instrumental style of the 13th and 14th centuries.

Hitler continued to refer to corporatism in propaganda, but it was not put into place, even though a number of Nazi officials such as Walther Darré, Gottfried Feder, Alfred Rosenburg, and Gregor Strasser were in favour of a neo-medievalist form of corporatism, since corporations had been influential in German history in the medieval era.

Walpole was obsessed with medieval Gothic architecture, and built his own house, Strawberry Hill, in that form, sparking a fashion for Gothic revival.

The term sacrum ( i. e., " holy " in the sense of " consecrated ") in connection with the medieval Roman Empire was used from 1157, under Frederick I Barbarossa (" Holy Empire "; the form " Holy Roman Empire " is attested from 1254 onward ).

The text of her writing and compositions reveals Hildegard's use of this form of modified medieval Latin, encompassing many invented, conflated and abridged words.

For his paintings, Gammell used symbols drawn from C. G. Jung, primitive and medieval cultures, and biblical and mythological sources, to give visual form to Thompson's poem.

As an alternative form of medicine in India, Unani medicine got deep roots and royal patronage during medieval times.

It was once unquestioned that medieval Irish literature preserved truly ancient traditions in a form virtually unchanged through centuries of oral tradition back to the ancient Celts of Europe.

Roman meander patterns gradually developed in complexity towards the fourfold shape that is now familiarly known as the medieval form.

He also saw in the history of medieval European cities the rise of a unique form of " non-legitimate domination " that successfully challenged the existing forms of legitimate domination ( traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal ) that had prevailed until then in the Medieval world.

The term " Merovingian " comes from medieval Latin Merovingi or Merohingi (" sons of Merovech "), an alteration of an unattested Old West Low Franconian form, akin to their dynasty's Old English name Merewīowing, with the final-ing being a typical patronymic suffix.

These fortifications evolved over the course of the Middle Ages, the most important form being the castle, a structure which has become linked with the medieval era to many.

Financially, Mary's regime tried to reconcile a modern form of government — with correspondingly higher spending — with a medieval system of collecting taxation and dues.

Many medieval English verses associated with the birth of Jesus take the form of a lullaby, including " Lullay, my liking, my dere son, my sweting " and may be versions of contemporary lullabies.

Oregano is the anglicised form of the Italian word origano, or possibly of the medieval Latin organum ; this latter is used in at least one Old English work.