Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, Islamic science and mathematics flourished under the Islamic caliphate established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south.

Islamic Scholar Ibn Sina ( Avicenna, 981 – 1037 ) proposed detailed explanations for the formation of mountains, the origin of earthquakes, and other topics central to modern Geology, which provided an essential foundation for the later development of the science.

The Islamic civilization gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam.

Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises, at least three of which were of continuing importance to later Islamic and European science.

The Islamic civilization rose to primacy in medical science as Muslim physicians contributed significantly to the field of medicine, including anatomy, ophthalmology, pharmacology, pharmacy, physiology, surgery, and the pharmaceutical sciences.

Ibn al-Nafis dealt with Islamic eschatology in some depth in his Theologus Autodidactus, where he rationalized the Islamic view of eschatology using reason, science, and philosophy to explain the events that would occur according to Islamic eschatology.

* Timeline of science and technology in the Islamic world

Ottoman science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars ' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass.

Early Islamic philosophy emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion, and the process of ijtihad to find truth-in effect all philosophy was " political " as it had real implications for governance.

Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises, at least three of which were of continuing importance to later Islamic and European science.

In the late 19th century a Pakistani scholar Khwaja Shamsuddin Azeemi wrote of and taught about the science of Islamic spirituality, of which the best known form remains the Sufi tradition ( famous through Rumi and Hafiz ) in which a spiritual master or pir transmits spiritual discipline to students.

Dr. Pervez Hoodbhoy had severely criticized Mr. Bashiruddin Mahmood's theories and the notion of Islamic science in general, calling it ludicrous science.

Other books written by him include a biography of the Islamic prophet Muhammad titled " First and the Last ", while his other books are focused more on the relation between Islam and science like Miraculous Quran, Life After Death and Doomsday, and Kitab-e-Zindagi ( in Urdu ).

The scientific revolution was built upon the foundation of ancient Greek learning and science in the middle ages, as it had been elaborated and further developed by Roman / Byzantine science and medieval Islamic science.

In Song Dynasty China and the classical Islamic world, this century marked the high point for both classical Chinese civilization, science and technology, and classical Islamic science, philosophy, technology and literature.

These developments gave rise to the Islamist and Islamic movement opposed to the increasing communist and Soviet influence over Afghanistan.

Some Muslim religious organizations cite this work in support of the Islamic view of Jesus ; in particular, the Islamic apologists Rashid Rida in Egypt and Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi in Pakistan gave it qualified acceptance.

In January 2008, Liberal MP Sophie Mirabella launched an attack on Fraser, after a speech he gave at Melbourne University on " the Bush Administration ( reversing ) 60 years of progress in establishing a law-based international system ", claiming errors and " either intellectual sloppiness or deliberate dishonesty ", and that he tacitly supports Islamic fundamentalism, should have no influence on foreign policy, and that his stance on the war on terror has left him open to caricature as a " frothing-at-the-mouth leftie ".

In early 1970, Khomeini gave a series of lectures in Najaf on Islamic government, later published as a book titled variously Islamic Government or Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist ( Hokumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih ).

The new Christian hierarchy demanded heavy taxes from non-Christians and gave them rights, such as in the Treaty of Granada ( 1491 ) only for Moors in recently Islamic Granada.

The SN 1054 supernova, which gave birth to the Crab Nebula, was also observed by Chinese and Islamic astronomers.

Medieval Islamic astronomers gave Arabic names to many stars that are still used today, and they invented numerous astronomical instruments that could compute the positions of the stars.

After the Islamic conquest of 629 – 632 Christianity in Petra, as of most of Arabia, gave way to Islam.

Their scepticism and extortion had tired their subjects, and the Abbassid Caliph ( resident in Baghdad ) as well as the faqihs ( Islamic jurists ) gave Yusuf a fatwa authorizing him to remove them due to their disloyalty to Islam by aiding and assisting the Christians against one another.

The Silk Road gave rise to the clusters of military states of nomadic origins in North China, invited the Nestorian, Manichaean, Buddhist, and later Islamic religions into Central Asia and China, created the influential Khazar Federation and at the end of its glory, brought about the largest continental empire ever: the Mongol Empire, with its political centers strung along the Silk Road ( Beijing in North China, Karakorum in central Mongolia, Sarmakhand in Transoxiana, Tabriz in Northern Iran, Sarai and Astrakhan in lower Volga, Solkhat in Crimea, Kazan in Central Russia, Erzurum in eastern Anatolia ), realizing the political unification of zones previously loosely and intermittently connected by material and cultural goods.

Sheikh Abdullah Al Ghraifi, the deputy head of the Islamic Scholars Council, gave a clear warning of the clerics ' intent: " We have at our disposition 150, 000 votes that we will forward to the MPs, and I hope that they understand this message clearly.

The legends include tales that it was invented in Europe to celebrate the defeat of the Umayyad forces at the Battle of Tours by the Franks in 732, with the shape representing the Islamic crescent ; that it was invented in Vienna in 1683 to celebrate the defeat of the Ottomans by Christian forces in the siege of the city, as a reference to the crescents on the Ottoman flags, when bakers staying up all night heard the tunneling operation and gave the alarm ; tales linking croissants with the kifli and the siege of Buda in 1686.

Islamic law placed importance on formulating standards of argument, which gave rise to a novel approach to logic in Kalam, but this approach was later displaced by ideas from Greek philosophy and Hellenistic philosophy with the rise of the Mu ' tazili philosophers, who highly valued Aristotle's Organon.

The same violent accusation was launched in Jaffa against sheikh Muzaffir, an otherwise radical Islamic preacher, who gave a sermon calling for calm on the same day.

The Islamic Central Institute gave the Muslims in Germany institutional ties to the ' Third Reich '.

Medieval Islamic geographers gave descriptions of Arran in general, and of its towns, which included Barda, Beylagan, and Ganja, along with others.

It gave the Crusaders control over an unfortified Jerusalem for over ten years, although the Muslims would hold control over Islamic holy places in the city.

In 2006, Nik Abdul Aziz Nik Mat gave his blessings to an Islamic form of dance clubs to serve as entertainment outlets at Kota Bharu.

Guyuk appointed his best friend's father Eljigidei as chief commander of the troops in Persia, and gave them the task of both reducing the strongholds of the Assassins a Muslim mouvement, and conquering the Abbasids in the center of the Islamic world, Iran and Iraq.

The Iranian Ministry of the Interior gave nebulous, arbitrary reasons for disqualifying the majority of the candidates, including narcotics addiction or involvement in drug-smuggling, connections to the Shah's pre-revolutionary government, lack of belief in or insufficient practice of Islam, being " against " the Islamic Republic, or having connections to foreign intelligence services.

The title " teacher " was first given to Aristotle by Muslim scholars, and was later used by Western philosophers ( as in the famous poem of Dante ) who were influenced by the tradition of Islamic philosophy.

The first autobiographical work in Islamic society was written in the late 11th century, by Abdallah ibn Buluggin, last Zirid king of Granada.

Out of the Samanid dynasty came the Ghaznavids, whose warriors forged the first great Islamic empire from Ghazni ( Afghanistan ) that spanned much of the Iranian plateau, Central Asia and conducted many successful raids into India.

They are known as the Baburnama and are considered the first true autobiography in Islamic literature.

It effectively established the first Islamic state.

As the Byzantine Empire was situated in-between the Islamic world and the Christian west, so did Constantinople act as Europe ’ s first line-of-defence against Arab advances in the 7th and 8th centuries.

The first president of Comoros, Ahmed Abdallah Abderemane, did not last long before being ousted in a coup by Ali Soilih, an atheist with an Islamic background.

The land on which Cairo was established in 969 ( present-day Islamic Cairo ) was located underwater just over three hundred years earlier, when Fustat was first built.

The first recorded reference to the bowed lira was in the 9th century by the Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih ( d. 911 ); in his lexicographical discussion of instruments he cited the lira ( lūrā ) as a typical instrument of the Byzantines and equivalent to the rabāb played in the Islamic Empires.

Hezbollah is reputed to have been among the first Islamic resistance groups to use tactical suicide bombing, assassination, and capturing foreign soldiers in the Middle East.

The Hindu-Arabic numeral system and the rules for the use of its operations, in use throughout the world today, likely evolved over the course of the first millennium AD in India and was transmitted to the west via Islamic mathematics.

The first year was the Islamic year beginning in AD 622 during which the emigration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina, known as the Hijra, occurred.

The use of the term Islamism was at first " a marker for scholars more likely to sympathize " with new Islamic movements ; however, as the term gained popularity it became more specifically associated with political groups such as the Taliban or the Algerian Armed Islamic Group, as well as with highly publicized acts of violence.

Another source distinguishes Islamist from Islamic " by the fact that the latter refers to a religion and culture in existence over a millennium, whereas the first is a political / religious phenomenon linked to the great events of the 20th century ".

All but the easternmost provinces of the Islamic realm had been taken from Christian rulers, and the vast majority of the first Muslims west of Iran and Arabia were converts from Christianity ... Their loss was sorely felt and it heightened the fear that a similar fate was in store for Europe .</ BLOCKQUOTE >

His was arguably the first, largest and most influential modern Islamic political / religious organization.

The first Modern Islamic state ( with the possible exception of Zia's Pakistan ) was established among the Shia of Iran.

< BLOCKQUOTE >... there is no doubt that the first battlefield for jihad is the extermination of these infidel leaders and to replace them by a complete Islamic Order ...</ BLOCKQUOTE >

His National Islamic Front first gained influence when strongman General Gaafar al-Nimeiry invited members to serve in his government in 1979.

Ibn Battuta talked his way into this expedition, which would be his first beyond the boundaries of the Islamic world.

Within classical Islamic jurisprudence — the development of which is to be dated into the first few centuries after the prophets death — jihad is the only form of warfare permissible under Islamic law, and may consist in wars against unbelievers, apostates, rebels, highway robbers and dissenters renouncing the authority of Islam.

While Sunni Islam was the state religion, there was not widespread pressure to convert ; indeed, Jahangir specifically warned his nobles that they " should not force Islam on anyone .” In the first century of Islamic expansion this attitude was taken partially because of concerns that an absence of non-Muslims would deprive the state of a valuable source of revenue.

Muslims were a minority until Ya ' qub bin Laith as-Saffar of Zaranj conquered Kabul in 870 and established the first Islamic dynasty in the region.