It was a naval engagement fought between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII.

The alliance commonly known as the Second Triumvirate, renewed for a five-year term in 38 BC, broke down when Octavian came to perceive Caesarion, the son of Julius Caesar and the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra VII, as a major threat to his power.

Octavian complained that Antony had no authority for being in Egypt ; that his execution of Sextus Pompeius was illegal ; that his treachery to the king of Armenia disgraced the Roman name ; that he had not sent half the proceeds of the spoils to Rome according to his agreement ; that his connection with Cleopatra and the acknowledgment of Caesarion as a legitimate son of Julius Caesar were a degradation of his office and a menace to himself.

Octavian was not present, but at the next meeting made a reply of such a nature that the consuls both left Rome to join Antony ; and Antony, when he heard of it, after publicly divorcing Octavia, came at once to Ephesus with Cleopatra, where a vast fleet was gathered from all parts of the East, of which Cleopatra furnished a large proportion.

But, by the publication of Antony's will, which had been put into his hands by the traitor Plancus, and by carefully letting it be known at Rome what preparations were going on at Samos, and how entirely Antony was acting as the agent of Cleopatra, Octavian produced such a violent outburst of feeling that he easily obtained Antony's deposition from the consulship of 31, for which he had been designated, and a vote for a proclamation of war against Cleopatra, well understood to mean against Antony, though he was not named.

At Samos, Octavian received a message from Cleopatra with the present of a gold crown and throne, offering to abdicate in favour of her sons.

C. Cornelius Gallus was advancing from Paraetonium ; and Octavian himself landed at Pelusium, with the connivance it was believed of Cleopatra.

Octavian ( Julius Caesar's 18-year old adopted son and heir ), and Cleopatra of Egypt ( Joseph M. Horodyski, Military Heritage, August 2005, Volume 7, No. 1, pp 58 to 63, and p. 78 ), ISSN 1524-8666.

Surrounded by Cleopatra and her children, Antony ended his alliance with Octavian.

In 32 BC, the Senate deprived him of his powers and declared war against Cleopatra – not Antony, because Octavian had no wish to advertise his role in perpetuating Rome's internecine bloodshed.

Cleopatra was allowed to conduct Antony's burial rites after she had been captured by Octavian.

Octavian had Caesarion murdered, but he spared Antony's children by Cleopatra, who were paraded through the streets of Rome.

The most famous member of the line was the last queen, Cleopatra VII, known for her role in the Roman political battles between Julius Caesar and Pompey, and later between Octavian and Mark Antony.

* 31 BC – Final War of the Roman Republic: Battle of Actium – off the western coast of Greece, forces of Octavian defeat troops under Mark Antony and Cleopatra.

The biographical tradition says that Virgil and Maecenas took turns reading the Georgics to Octavian upon his return from defeating Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC.

* September 2 – Roman Civil War: Battle of Actium: Off the western coast of Greece, Octavian Caesar defeats the naval forces under Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII.

* 31 BC: Roman Civil War: Battle of Actium — Off the western coast of Greece, forces of Octavian defeat troops under Mark Antony and Cleopatra.

In order to assure this oath, Octavian forced the high priest of the Vestal Virgins in Rome to hand over Antony's will, which give information over the Roman-conquered territories as kingdoms and plans to build a tomb in Alexandria for him and Cleopatra.

* The children of Cleopatra are spared by Octavian and taken back in triumph ; Octavia Minor raised Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene and Ptolemy Philadelphus in her household in Rome.

Cleopatra claimed Caesar was the father of her son and wished him to name the boy his heir, but Caesar refused, choosing his grandnephew Octavian instead.

In the Roman civil war between the Caesarian faction, led by Mark Antony and Octavian, and the faction including the assassins of Caesar, led by Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus, Cleopatra sided with the Caesarian party because of her past.

Cassius also wanted to prevent Cleopatra from bringing reinforcements for Antony and Octavian.

Octavian, now close to absolute power, did not intend to give them rest.

* January 16 – Octavian formally returns full power to the Senate, they give him the titles of Princeps and Augustus.

The Second Triumvirate is the name historians give to the official political alliance of Octavian ( later known as Augustus ), Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and Mark Antony, formed on 26 November 43 BC with the enactment of the Lex Titia, the adoption of which marked the end of the Roman Republic.

Furthermore, Antony lent Octavian 120 ships under the command of Titus Statilius Taurus, for which Octavian was to give him 20, 000 infantry to be recruited from northern Italy.

* March – Vibius Pansa set out to link up with Hirtius and Octavian, bringing four legions of recruits, having left one, the legio urbana, to defend Rome.

* April – Octavian returns from Apollonia in Dalmatia to Rome to take up Caesar's inheritance, against advice from Atia ( his mother and Caesar's niece ) and consular stepfather Antony.

Antony links up with Norbanus and Saxa at Amphipolis, Octavian arrives on a litter 10 days later.

Octavian reduces the outposts defending the Liburnian town of Promona, sets up siege works and forces its surrender.

Juba II while growing up, accompanied Octavian on military campaigns, gaining valuable experience as a leader.

The first occurred on the first week of October ; Brutus faced Octavian, while Antony's forces were up against those of Cassius.

This surprise assault had complete success: Octavian ’ s troops were put to flight and pursued up to their camp, which was captured by Brutus ’ s men, led by Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus.

During the tense period of time leading up to the final conflict between Mark Antony ( Marcus Antonius ) and Octavian ( future Emperor Augustus ), Antony shared control of the Republic in a triumvirate with Octavian and Lepidus, but Lepidus was forced into retirement by Octavian in 36 BC, leaving Antony and Octavian as rivals.

Tauromenium again bore a conspicuous part during the wars of Sextus Pompeius in Sicily, and, from its strength as a fortress, was one of the principal points of the position which he took up in 36 BC, for defence against Octavian.

The Octavian Lens end up speeding up the Greenhouse Effect and heats up the Earth.

Iorga's suggestions that new arrivals from Transylvania and Bessarabia were becoming a clique also resulted in collisions with former friend Octavian Goga, who had joined up with Averescu's party.

The Octavian Lens end up speeding up the Greenhouse Effect and heats up the Earth.

The antisemitic discourse targeting the Sărindar-based publications was taken up in the same period by the traditionalist Transylvanian poet Octavian Goga and by businessman-journalist Stelian Popescu ( who, in 1915, became owner of Universul ).

Mark Antony later charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours, though Suetonius, in his work Lives of the Twelve Caesars, describes Antony's accusation as political slander.

A later senatorial investigation into the disappearance of the public funds made no action against Octavian, since he subsequently used that money to raise troops against the Senate's arch enemy, Mark Antony.

Antony was inevitably perceived by Octavian and the majority of the Roman Senate as the leader of a separatist movement that threatened to break the unity of the Roman Republic.

Both Octavian and Mark Antony had fought against their common enemies in the civil war that followed the assassination of Julius Caesar.

After years of loyal cooperation with Octavian, Mark Antony started to act independently, eventually raising the suspicion that he was vying to become the sole master of Rome.

Thereafter, Octavian started a propaganda war, denouncing Antony as an enemy of Rome, asserting that he was seeking to establish a personal monarchy over the entire Roman Empire on the behalf of Caesarion, completely circumventing the Roman Senate.

Antony complained that Octavian had exceeded his powers in deposing Lepidus, in taking over the countries held by Sextus Pompeius, in enlisting soldiers for himself without sending half to him.

But during these months not only was Agrippa continuing his descent upon Greek towns and coasts, but in various cavalry skirmishes, Octavian had so far prevailed that Antony abandoned the north side of the strait and confined his soldiers to the southern camp.

Under cover of darkness some 19 legions and 12, 000 cavalry fled before Antony was able to engage Octavian in a land battle.

After Mark Antony lost his fleet, his army, which had been equal to that of Octavian, deserted in large numbers.

Antony, who had found himself generally deserted, after vainly attempting to secure the army stationed near Paraetonium under Pinarius, and sending his eldest son Antyllus with money to Octavian and an offer to live at Athens as a private citizen, found himself in the spring attacked on two sides.

During the Civil Wars that led to the Principate, Octavian ( later Augustus ) acquired the personal gladiator troop of his erstwhile opponent, Mark Antony.

He first appears in history in 40 BC, when he was employed by Octavian in arranging his marriage with Scribonia, and afterwards in assisting to negotiate the treaty of Brundisium and the reconciliation with Mark Antony.

To his influence especially was attributed the more humane policy of Octavian after his first alliance with Antony and Lepidus.

After Caesar's assassination, Antony formed an official political alliance with Octavian ( the future Augustus ) and Lepidus, known to historians today as the Second Triumvirate.

Disagreement between Octavian and Antony erupted into civil war, the final war of the Roman Republic, in 31 BC.

Antony was defeated by Octavian at the naval Battle of Actium, and in a brief land battle at Alexandria.

Roman aureus bearing the portraits of Mark Antony ( left ) and Augustus | Octavian ( right ).

Struck in 41 BC, this coin was issued to celebrate the establishment of the Second Triumvirate by Octavian, Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus ( triumvir ) | Marcus Lepidus in 43 BC.