Philosophers have many differing views on what the fundamental categories of being are.

Philosophers since the time of Descartes and Locke have struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness and pin down its essential properties.

Marx explicitly developed the notion of critique into the critique of ideology and linked it with the practice of social revolution, as in the famous 11th of his Theses on Feuerbach, " Philosophers have only interpreted the world in certain ways ; the point is to change it.

Philosophers who have criticized the concept of human rights include Jeremy Bentham, Edmund Burke, Friedrich Nietzsche and Karl Marx.

Philosophers have developed two rival theories for how this happens, called endurantism and perdurantism.

Philosophers Richard Wollheim and Thomas Baldwin have argued that Sartre's attempt to show that Sigmund Freud's theory of the unconscious is mistaken is based on a misinterpretation of Freud.

Philosophers, such as Fiona Cowie and Barbara Scholz with Geoffrey Pullum have also argued against certain nativist claims in support of empiricism.

Philosophers Randall Dipert and Roderick Long have argued that Objectivist epistemology conflates the perceptual process by which judgments are formed with the way in which they are to be justified, thereby leaving it unclear how judgments with propositional structure can be validated by sensory data.

Philosophers and scientists have responded to this difficulty in a variety of ways.

Philosophers across many traditions, from Stoicism to Buddhism, have suggested that a spiritual practice is essential for personal well being.

Philosophers, he suggests, may have made the error of hypostatizing simplicity ( i. e. endowed it with a sui generis existence ), when it has meaning only when embedded in a specific context ( Sober 1992 ).

Philosophers have investigated the criteria by which a scientific theory can be said to have successfully explained a phenomenon, as well as what gives a scientific theory explanatory power.

Philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, Al-Farabi, Avicenna, Averroes, Maimonides, Aquinas and Hegel are sometimes said to have argued that reason must be fixed and discoverable — perhaps by dialectic, analysis, or study.

Philosophers, mathematicians, and others ancient and modern such as Aristotle, Plato, Frege, Wittgenstein, Russell etc., have made a distinction between thought corresponding to reality, coherent abstractions, and that which cannot even be rationally thought.

Philosophers have argued that either Determinism is true or Indeterminism is true, but also that Free Will either exists or it does not.

Philosophers have long ignored this problem and devised systems of ethics that are powerless against our temporally biased policies.

Philosophers of science have emphasized the importance of heuristics in creative thought and constructing scientific theories.

Philosophers and social psychologists have noted that pride is a complex secondary emotion which requires the development of a sense of self and the mastery of relevant conceptual distinctions ( e. g., that pride is distinct from happiness and joy ) through language-based interaction with others.

Most of the biographical information we have of Theophrastus was provided by Diogenes Laërtius ' Lives of the Philosophers, written more than four hundred years after Theophrastus ' time.

Philosophers have tended to be more abstract in their analysis, and much of the work examining the viability of the belief concept stems from philosophical analysis.

Philosophers and scientists such as Victor Reppert, William Hasker and Alvin Plantinga have developed an argument for dualism dubbed the " Argument from Reason " and credit C. S.

Philosophers such as Karl Popper and John Eccles and quantum physicist Henry Stapp have theorized that such indeterminacy may apply even at the macroscopic scale.

This idealist understanding of philosophy as interpretation was famously challenged by Karl Marx's 11th thesis on Feuerbach ( 1845 ): " Philosophers have hitherto only interpreted the world in various ways ; the point, however, is to change it.

Philosophers, such as Karl R. Popper, have provided influential theories of the scientific method within which scientific evidence plays a central role.

The only surviving complete works by Epicurus are three letters, which are to be found in book X of Diogenes Laertius ' Lives of Eminent Philosophers, and two groups of quotes: the Principal Doctrines, reported as well in Diogenes ' book X, and the Vatican Sayings, preserved in a manuscript from the Vatican Library.

Rand is not found in the comprehensive academic reference texts The Oxford Companion to Philosophy or The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, but is the subject of entries in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers, the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, and The Routledge Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Political Thinkers.

Together with Alvin Plantinga, Nicholas Wolterstorff, and Robert Adams, Alston helped to found the journal Faith and Philosophy and the Society of Christian Philosophers.

Similar legends may be found in Wolfram von Eschenbach's description of the Holy Grail as the " Lapis Exillis ", guarded by the Knights Templar, or in the Philosophers ' stone of the alchemists, the " Lapis Elixir ".

However, scholars have also found implicit traces of the idea in the works of Al-Ghazali ( The Incoherence of the Philosophers ), Averroes ( The Incoherence of the Incoherence ), Fakhr al-Din al-Razi ( Matalib al -' Aliya ) and John Duns Scotus.

Philosophers have described these as Kant ’ s " two worlds " – the world of nature ( which leads to determinism ), and the world of freedom ( where responsibility is found ).

Philosophers have found this argument very powerful.

Philosophers Steven Best and Douglas Kellner view VHEMT's stance as extreme, but they note that the movement formed in response to extreme stances found in " modern humanism ".

Philosophers such as Confucius and Laozi, for example, used similar words and ideas ( Dao, wu-wei action, sage ) to mean slightly different meanings.

Philosophers who use the word defeasible have historically had different world views from those who use the word indefeasible ( and this distinction has often been mirrored by Oxford and Cambridge zeitgeist ); hence it is rare to find authors who use both words.

Philosophers distinguish internalist accounts, which assume that perceptions of objects, and knowledge or beliefs about them, are aspects of an individual's mind, and externalist accounts, which state that they constitute real aspects of the world external to the individual.

Philosophers also vary in the question of whether language is basically a tool for representing and referring to objects in the world, or whether it is a system used to construct mental representations of the world that can be shared and circulated between people.

Philosophers of biology argue about whether biological species, like the Bald Eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ), are natural kinds ; even such familiar species as bird, cat, and dog cannot be established as natural types, since any plausible definitions of those species leaves the classification of some animals ambiguous.

In the spring term of 1993 he conducted the first Russia Symposium from which others sponsored by the Society of Christian Philosophers ( SCP ) have followed, and he began the China Symposia in the fall term of 1994 from which SCP symposia have followed every year since ( except 2003 ).

Philosophers of science and economists have explored these issues intensively since the work of Alexander Rosenberg and Daniel Hausman dating to 3 decades ago.

Between 1424 and 1433 he worked on the translation of the Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes Laërtius, which came to be widely circulated in manuscript form and was published at Rome in 1472 ( the first printed edition of the Lives ; the Greek text was printed only in 1533 ).

From at least the days of the Greek Philosophers, the relationship between faith and reason has been hotly debated.

Philosophers are not interested in the " Ship of Theseus " problem per se, but to a more basic problem which is this: How does one decide that X is the same as Y, where X describes something at one time, and Y describes another thing at a later time?

The group at this time is sometimes referred to as the " Lunar circle ", though this is a later description used by historians, and the group themselves used a variety of less specific descriptions, including " Birmingham Philosophers " or simply " fellow-schemers ".

Philosophers are, or at least are expected to be, very good at giving arguments.

At the Philosophers ’ Conference of October 1962 in Münster, at which Habermas wrote that Adorno was " A writer among bureaucrats ", Adorno presented " Progress.

* Intellectual Biography of Nikolai Trubetzkoy at the Gallery of Russian Thinkers ( International Society for Philosophers )

Philosophers such as Michael of Cesena, Marsilius of Padua and William of Ockham who advocated a form of church / state separation were now protected at the emperor's court in Munich.

Edward V as Prince of Wales, part of a miniature of the presentation of Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers at the court of Edward IV, Christmas 1477

During the same time, he became the leading professor at the newly founded University of Constantinople, bearing the honorary title of " Consul of the Philosophers " ().

Philosophers and scientists can work together at the borders between biology, social science and the humanities.

After both of them had returned to England, one of the first, if not the first, books printed in England was Rivers ' translation from French of the Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophers, printed by Caxton at Westminster in 1477.

In 1664 he published at London an edition of the Lives of Eminent Philosophers by Diogenes Laertius that contains an unedited anonymous life of Aristotle ; this life was known as ' Vita Menagiana ' before the critical edition by Ingemar Düring, Aristotle in the ancient biographical tradition Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell 1957 ; reprinted New York, Garland, 1987, pp. 80 – 93 ) with the title ' Vita Hesychii ' ( the attribution to Hesychius of Miletus is controversial ).

According to Diogenes Laertius, Solon “ diminished the honours paid to Athletes who were victorious in the games, fixing the prize for a victor at Olympia at five hundred drachmae, and for one who conquered at the Isthmian games at one hundred ” ( Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Philosophers 1. 55: Solon ; Greek ).

According to Baird's Manual, nine undergraduates at Union College in Schenectady, New York — John Hart Hunter, John McGeoch, Isaac W. Jackson, Thomas Hun, Orlando Meads, James Proudfit, and Joseph Anthony Constant of the class of 1826, and Arthur Burtis and Joseph Law of the Class of 1827 — established the Society on November 26, 1825 from an informal group calling itself The Philosophers, which was established by Hunter, Jackson, and Hun in 1823.

The Deipnosophistae ( deipnon, " dinner ", and sophistai, " professors "; original Greek title, Deipnosophistai, English Deipnosophists ) may be translated as The Banquet of the Learned or Philosophers at Dinner or The Gastronomers.

* Library of Living Philosophers Records, 1938-1981 at Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Special Collections Research Center

Philosophers of science argue over the epistemological limits of such a consensus and some, including Thomas Kuhn, have pointed to the existence of scientific revolutions in the history of science as being an important indication that scientific consensus can, at times, be wrong.

* " Bruces ' Philosophers Song " – The University of Woolloomooloo's Philosophy Department throws cans of Foster's Lager at the audience and perform " The Philosophers ' Song ", accompanied by large Gilliam cutouts, detailing the drinking habits of history's great thinkers and project lyrics for the audience and viewers to sing along to.