Some Jewish Philosophers, like Sadia Gaon rejected reincarnation as a Pagan doctrine.

Philosophers and theologians more commonly use phrases like " perfectly good ", or simply the term " benevolence ".

Philosophers of biology argue about whether biological species, like the Bald Eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ), are natural kinds ; even such familiar species as bird, cat, and dog cannot be established as natural types, since any plausible definitions of those species leaves the classification of some animals ambiguous.

Philosophers like John Rawls, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau helped created the foundation of social contract.

The aim of “ The Book of Dead Philosophers ” is to examine, defend and refine the ideal of the philosophical death in the context of a culture like ours that is defined by a denial of death.

Philosophers, mathematicians, and others ancient and modern such as Aristotle, Plato, Frege, Wittgenstein, Russell etc., have made a distinction between thought corresponding to reality, coherent abstractions, and that which cannot even be rationally thought.

Philosophers such as Karl Popper and John Eccles and quantum physicist Henry Stapp have theorized that such indeterminacy may apply even at the macroscopic scale.

Some writers, such as Augustin Barruel and John Robison, even claimed that the Illuminati were behind the French Revolution, a claim that Jean-Joseph Mounier dismissed in his 1801 book On the Influence Attributed to Philosophers, Free-Masons, and to the Illuminati on the Revolution of France.

Philosophers who worry about ceteris paribus analyses do not worry about this sort ; their worries are focused on ceteris paribus clauses that are not even eliminable in principle.

That this question so long debated of the Philosophers, most wise men, and yet undetermined, cannot even of Divines, and men endued with heavenly wisdom, be discussed and decided?

: Wills that Philosophers shall not say even

Philosophers argue this evades the issue.

Philosophers offer definitions and explanations in solution to problems ; they argue for those solutions ; and then other philosophers provide counter arguments, expecting to eventually come up with better solutions.

Some Philosophers, such as René Descartes, argue that God is absolutely omnipotent.

Philosophers such as John Lucas argue that " The Block universe gives a deeply inadequate view of time.

Philosophers analyzing the allegory argue that the prisoners would ironically find the freed man stupid due to the current state of his eyes and temporarily not being able to see the shadows which are the world to the prisoners.

Philosophers of science argue over the epistemological limits of such a consensus and some, including Thomas Kuhn, have pointed to the existence of scientific revolutions in the history of science as being an important indication that scientific consensus can, at times, be wrong.

Philosophers who argue against eliminativism may take several approaches.

Philosophers in this camp argue that once we recognize that it makes no sense for philosophy to make scientific-technical progress, we ought to also realize that it makes no sense for philosophy to aspire to it either.

Philosophers and non-philosophers differ in their intuitions about what consciousness is.

Marx explicitly developed the notion of critique into the critique of ideology and linked it with the practice of social revolution, as in the famous 11th of his Theses on Feuerbach, " Philosophers have only interpreted the world in certain ways ; the point is to change it.

Philosophers are not interested in the " Ship of Theseus " problem per se, but to a more basic problem which is this: How does one decide that X is the same as Y, where X describes something at one time, and Y describes another thing at a later time?

Philosophers Richard Wollheim and Thomas Baldwin have argued that Sartre's attempt to show that Sigmund Freud's theory of the unconscious is mistaken is based on a misinterpretation of Freud.

The group at this time is sometimes referred to as the " Lunar circle ", though this is a later description used by historians, and the group themselves used a variety of less specific descriptions, including " Birmingham Philosophers " or simply " fellow-schemers ".

Philosophers such as Aristotle and Pliny the Elder argued that the full Moon induced insanity in susceptible individuals, believing that the brain, which is mostly water, must be affected by the Moon and its power over the tides, but the Moon's gravity is too slight to affect any single person.

Philosophers such as Patricia Churchland posit that the drug-mind interaction is indicative of an intimate connection between the brain and the mind, not that the two are the same entity.

Rand is not found in the comprehensive academic reference texts The Oxford Companion to Philosophy or The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy, but is the subject of entries in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers, the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, and The Routledge Dictionary of Twentieth-Century Political Thinkers.

Philosophers of science, such as Paul Feyerabend, argued that a distinction between science and nonscience is neither possible nor desirable.

Philosophers also vary in the question of whether language is basically a tool for representing and referring to objects in the world, or whether it is a system used to construct mental representations of the world that can be shared and circulated between people.

Philosophers across many traditions, from Stoicism to Buddhism, have suggested that a spiritual practice is essential for personal well being.

Philosophers know all too well, from dealing with for example the problem of substance and the problem of universals, that general " What is " questions ( ti esti questions ) give an overly simple appearance to what is in fact a very complex affair.

Philosophers have argued that either Determinism is true or Indeterminism is true, but also that Free Will either exists or it does not.

Idle is an accomplished songwriter, having composed and performed many of the Pythons ' most famous comic pieces, including " Eric the Half-a-Bee ", " The Philosophers ' Song ", " Galaxy Song ", " Penis Song ( Not the Noel Coward Song )" and, probably his most recognised hit, " Always Look on the Bright Side of Life ", which was written for the closing scene of the Monty Python film Life of Brian, and sung from the crosses during the mass crucifixion.

Philosophers and social psychologists have noted that pride is a complex secondary emotion which requires the development of a sense of self and the mastery of relevant conceptual distinctions ( e. g., that pride is distinct from happiness and joy ) through language-based interaction with others.

The author of some twenty books, Heilbroner was best known for The Worldly Philosophers ( 1953 ), a survey of the lives and contributions of famous economists, notably Adam Smith, Karl Marx, and John Maynard Keynes.

There is also the lumpers / splitters problem, namely that some works split philosophy into more periods than others: one author might feel a strong need to differentiate between " The Age of Reason " or " Early Modern Philosophers " and " The Enlightenment "; another author might write from the perspective that 1600-1800 is essentially one continuous evolution, and therefore a single period.

The most venerated Confucians, some of them direct disciples of Confucius, are often grouped as the " Four Correlates " () and the " Twelve Philosophers " ().

Philosophers continued to teach platonism in Athens during the Roman era, but it was not until the early 5th century ( c. 410 ) that a revived Academy was established by some leading Neoplatonists.

*" Philosophers and poets, thinkers of high and low degree from every age and race have sought to expound the meaning of virtue, but each teaches his own conception of the moral excellence that satisfies standards of good conduct.

His most important original philosophical work was The Incoherence of the Incoherence ( Tahafut al-tahafut ), in which he defended Aristotelian philosophy against al-Ghazali's claims in The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahafut al-falasifa ).

His most important original philosophical work was The Incoherence of the Incoherence ( Tahafut al-tahafut ), in which he defended Aristotelian philosophy against al-Ghazali's claims in The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahafut al-falasifa ).

* The so-called ' Philosophers circle ', a monument to important Greek thinkers and poets, consisting of statues of Hesiod, Homer, Pindar, Plato, and others ( Ptolemaeic )

In 1850 published an important critical edition of the Lives of Eminent Philosophers ( Diogenis Laertii De Clarorum philosophorum vitis, dogmatibus et apophthegmatibus libri decem, Pariisis, Didot ).

Philosophers such as George Berkeley and David Hume, and early experimental psychologists such as Wilhelm Wundt and William James, understood ideas in general to be mental images, and today it is very widely believed that much imagery functions as mental representations ( or mental models ), playing an important role in memory and thinking.

His more important works include Critical Philosophy of Kant ( 1877 ), Hegel ( 1883 ), Evolution of Religion, Social Philosophy and Religion of Comte ( 1885 ), and Evolution of Theology in the Greek Philosophers ( 1904 ).