It was also turned into the female form Ἀχιλλεία ( Achilleía ) attested in Attica in the 4th century BC ( IG II² 1617 ) and, in the form Achillia, on a stele in Halicarnassus as the name of a female gladiator fighting an " Amazon ".

About the 4th century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation ; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered.

Marble, Roman copy of a Greek original of the 4th century BCE, from the collection of Cardinal Albani

In the 4th century BC Alexander the Great conquered the peninsula, defeating the Persians.

The name Asia Minor was given by the Latin author Orosios in the 4th century AD.

In the latter part of the 4th century BC, the Macedonian Greek king Alexander the Great conquered the peninsula.

The texts, which were rendered on leather, reflect the use of Aramaic in the 4th century BCE Achaemenid administration of Bactria and Sogdiana.

** Laozi ( 5th – 4th century BC )

** Zhuangzi ( 4th century BC )

: Metrodorus of Chios ( 4th century BC )

" Arianism " is also often used to refer to other nontrinitarian theological systems of the 4th century, which regarded Jesus Christ — the Son of God, the Logos — as either a created being ( as in Arianism proper and Anomoeanism ), or as neither uncreated nor created in the sense other beings are created ( as in Semi-Arianism ).

Controversy over Arianism arose in the late 3rd century and persisted throughout most of the 4th century.

But, by the end of the 4th century Trinitarianism prevailed in the Roman Empire.

The conflict in the 4th century had seen Arian and Nicene factions struggling for control of the Church.

The real founder of cenobitic ( koinos, common, and bios, life ) monasteries in the modern sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian of the beginning of the 4th century.

Palladius, who visited the Egyptian monasteries about the close of the 4th century, found among the 300 members of the coenobium of Panopolis, under the Pachomian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 carpenters, 12 cameldrivers and 15 tanners.

Aurelius Ambrosius, better known in English as Saint Ambrose ( c. 330 – 4 April 397 ), was an archbishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century.

In the late 4th century there was a deep conflict in the diocese of Milan between the Catholics and Arians.

In the 4th century BC it continued its traditional policy, but in 338 was besieged by Philip II of Macedon.

Amber is discussed by Theophrastus, possibly the first historical mention of the material, in the 4th century BC.

Alcidamas, of Elaea, in Aeolis, Greek sophist and rhetorician, flourished in the 4th century BC.

The Theban army under Pelopidas is said to have been dismayed by an eclipse ( on July 13, 364, see 4th century BC eclipses ), and Pelopidas, leaving the bulk of his army behind, entered Thessaly at the head of three hundred volunteer horsemen and some mercenaries.

Their non-Greek language is confirmed on the site by inscriptions in the Cypriot syllabary which alone in the Aegean world survived the Bronze Age collapse and continued to be used down to the 4th century BC.

* Andronicus, Probus, and Tarachus ( Saint Andronicus ), a 4th century martyr

* Arius, a Christian presbyter in the 3rd and 4th century

Lactantius, a Christian apologist of the early 4th century ( deeply hating Decius for the persecution of Christians resulted from his edict on sacrifices ) described the emperor's demise as following:

In ancient literature, we find a reference to the workings of water-powered marble saws close to Trier, now Germany, by the late 4th century poet Ausonius ; about the same time, these mill types seem also to be indicated by the Christian saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia, demonstrating a diversified use of water-power in many parts of the Roman Empire.

In the 4th century, an Alexandrian presbyter named Arius began a theological dispute about the nature of Christ that spread throughout the Christian world and is now known as Arianism.

Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries.

The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early 4th century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively.

A large 4th century cemetery at Poundbury with its east-west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period.

Alban, the first British Christian martyr and by far the most prominent, is believed to have died in the early 4th century ( although some date him in the middle 3rd century ), followed by Saints Aaron and Julius of Isca Augusta.

The term Hesychast is used sparingly in Christian ascetical writings emanating from Egypt from the 4th century on, although the writings of Evagrius and the Sayings of the Desert Fathers do attest to it.

In the 4th century it was incorporated into Christian Byzantium, transforming from the pagan Eastern Roman Empire.

According to Luther H. Martin, Roman Mithraism came to an end with the anti-pagan decrees of the Christian emperor Theodosius during the last decade of the 4th century.

The Jewish town profited from the Christian pilgrim trade which began in the 4th century, but latent anti-Christian hostility broke out in 614 AD when the Persians invaded Palestine.

Surviving descriptions of Christian pilgrimages to the Holy Land date from the 4th century, when pilgrimage was encouraged by church fathers like Saint Jerome and established by Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great.

Following the conversion of Constantine and the liberating Edict of Milan in 313, the ecumenical councils of the 4th, 5th and 6th centuries, that focused on Christology helped shape the Christian understanding of the redemptive nature of Resurrection, and influenced both the development of its iconography, and its use within Liturgy.

From the 4th century onwards, Sunday worship has also taken on the observance of Sunday rest in some Christian traditions, such as the Puritans of the 16th and 17th centuries.

From the 4th century onwards, Sunday worship has also taken on the observance of Sunday rest in some Christian traditions, such as the Puritans of the 16th and 17th centuries.

The first Christian bishoprics were founded in the 4th century.

The Septuagint order for the Old Testament is evident in the earliest Christian Bibles ( 4th century ).

More than three dozen representatives of other Christian communities were present at the opening session, and the number grew to nearly 100 by the end of the 4th Council Period.

Some scholars have suggested that he considered Ruth part of Judges, and Lamentations part of Jeremiah ; as the Christian translator Jerome recorded in the 4th century CE.

For example, Taxila was an early centre of Vedic learning, possible from the 6th century BC or earlier ; the Platonic Academy founded in Athens in the 4th century BC seems to have included theological themes in its subject matter ; the Chinese Taixue delivered Confucian teaching from the 2nd century BC ; the School of Nisibis was a centre of Christian learning from the 4th century AD ; Nalanda in India was a site of Buddhist higher learning from at least the 5th or 6th century AD ; and the Moroccan University of Al-Karaouine was a centre of Islamic learning from the 10th century, as was Al-Azhar University in Cairo.

Due to the secret nature of the cult, and because the mystery religions of Late Antiquity were persecuted by the Christian Roman Empire from the 4th century, the details of these religious practices are unknown to scholarship, although there are educated guesses as to their general content.

In the 4th century the room above the pagan shrine was apparently converted to Christian use, with painted plaster on the walls, including a row of figures of standing worshipers, ( orans ), and a characteristic Christian Chi-rho symbol.