The amount of Rayleigh scattering from a single particle can also be expressed as a cross section σ.

which indicates that high pressure sodium sources produce roughly one-third to one-half of the skyglow compared to the output of typical metal halide sources, based on the same amount of light entering the atmosphere and pure Rayleigh scattering.

Since the Stokes lines and anti-Stokes lines gain and lose the same amount of energy, they are symmetric with respect to the peak due to elastic ( Rayleigh ) scattering ().

In 1882, Lord Rayleigh theoretically estimated the maximum amount of charge a liquid droplet could carry ; this is now known as the " Rayleigh limit ".

The total amount of scattering in a sparse medium is determined by the product of the scattering cross-section and the number of particles present.

The amount of the polarizability change will determine the Raman scattering intensity.

The scattering angle ( that is, the amount that the electron's path is deflected ) can also be measured, giving information about the dispersion relation of whatever material excitation caused the inelastic scattering.

Of the total light removed from the direct solar beam by scattering in the atmosphere ( approximately 25 % of the incident radiation when the sun is high in the sky, depending on the amount of dust and haze in the atmosphere ), about two-thirds ultimately reaches the earth as diffuse sky radiation.

The amount of energy loss by Compton scattering is related to the number electrons per unit volume of formation.

Also, electrons from the gamma photoelectric effect show a spread in energy, depending on how much energy has been imparted to the ejected electron by the gamma ray which interacts with it — an amount which is variable depending on the angle of gamma photon scattering from the electron ( see Compton scattering ).

A helium-cooled reactor would avoid this, since the elastic scattering and total cross sections are approximately equal, i. e. there are very few ( n, gamma ) reactions in the coolant and the low density of helium at typical operating conditions means that the amount neutrons have few interactions with coolant.

The amount of light scattering therefore depends on the wavelength of the incident radiation, or light.

The amount of blurring required to accurately model subsurface scattering in skin is still under active research, but performing only a single blur poorly models the true effects.

which is just the probability of reaching the screen if none were scattered, lessened by an amount, which is therefore the effective scattering cross section of the scatterer.

While most elements are generally viewed as stable, a small amount of natural transformation of one element to another also occurs in the present time, through decay of radioactive elements as well as other natural nuclear processes.

Thus, a large amount of aggression occurs 5 – 15 minutes after a reunion.

When the upcurrent amount of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs.

Heteroskedacity occurs when the amount of error is correlated with an independent variable.

Generally, with catenation comes the loss of the total amount of bonded hydrocarbons and an increase in the amount of energy required for bond cleavage due to strain exerted upon the molecule ; in molecules such as cyclohexane, this is referred to as ring strain, and occurs due to the " destabilized " spatial electron configuration of the atom.

Hypoxia also occurs in healthy individuals when breathing mixtures of gases with a low oxygen content, e. g. while diving underwater especially when using closed-circuit rebreather systems that control the amount of oxygen in the supplied air.

A " pharmacologic dose " of a hormone is a medical usage referring to an amount of a hormone far greater than naturally occurs in a healthy body.

Hyperinflation occurs when there is a continuing ( and often accelerating ) rapid increase in the amount of money that is not supported by a corresponding growth in the output of goods and services.

* Hot spot ( computer science ), region of a program where a significant amount of computation occurs

Potatoes are cross-pollinated mostly by insects, including bumblebees, which carry pollen from other potato plants, but a substantial amount of self-fertilizing occurs as well.

In modern times, it often occurs in a region following the industrialization of agriculture when fewer people are needed to bring the same amount of agricultural output to market and related agricultural services and industries are consolidated.

A fundamental observation leading to the development of quantum mechanics is that the energy levels of an electron around an atom does not vary continuously, but instead occurs in discrete quantum states called " orbitals ", each associated with an amount of energy.

A hand pay occurs when the amount of the payout exceeds the maximum amount that was preset by the slot machine's operator.

Such states tend to have a moderate to large amount of tourism or inter-state travel that occurs within their borders, allowing the state to benefit from taxes from people the state would otherwise not tax.

A " foul ", also known as a " scratch ," or missed jump, occurs when a jumper oversteps the takeoff mark, misses the pit entirely, does not use the correct foot sequence throughout the phases, or does not perform the attempt in the allotted amount of time ( usually about 90 seconds ).

Water and, to a lesser but still significant extent, ice, are also responsible for a large amount of sediment transport that occurs on the surface of the earth.

The absence of such a division in living amphibian species may be at least partly due to the amount of respiration that occurs through the skin in such species ; thus, the blood returned to the heart through the vena cavae is, in fact, already partially oxygenated.

Just like in common incineration, burning occurs, however controlling the amount of oxygen allowed proves to be significant to reduce the amount of harmful byproducts produced.

Some ground irrigation techniques involve the digging of channels on the land for the water to flow, whereas the use of center-pivot irrigation can reduce the amount of soil tillage that occurs and helps to reduce water runoff and soil erosion that can occur with ground irrigation.

In diabetes, it generally refers to an extra amount of insulin given in a single dose to cover an expected rise in blood glucose ( sugar ) such as the rise that occurs after eating.

When I mentioned that for my first long voyage I did not even have the money for the return fare, but had trusted to luck that I would earn a sufficient amount, the young people looked at me doubtingly.

When he remembered that he might have not signed the check, Mercer made out another for the same amount, instructing the bank to destroy the other -- especially if he had happened to have absent-mindedly signed both of them.

The immense amount of interest that the new jazz had for the younger generation must have impressed him, and he began working toward the merger of jazz and poetry, as he had previously attempted the union of graphic art and poetry.

It will determine the amount of money to be spent by the college and will certify this amount to the board of freeholders, which `` shall appropriate in the same manner as other appropriations are made by it the amount so certified and the amount shall be assessed, levied and collected in the same manner as moneys appropriated for other purposes ''.

A Member of the United Nations which is in arrears in the payment of its financial contributions to the Organization shall have no vote in the General Assembly if the amount of its arrears equals or exceeds the amount of the contributions due from it for the preceding two full years ''.

The legislature's role in policy determination in this area for years has been confined almost solely to the amount of funds appropriated annually for the purchase and operation of vehicles.

It is obvious that this is a potential and lucrative source of revenue for the assessors of those towns where a substantial amount of such property would be subject to taxation.

In connection with any claim decided by the Commission pursuant to this Title in which an award is made, the Commission may, upon the written request of the claimant or any attorney heretofore or hereafter employed by such claimant, determine and apportion the just and reasonable attorney's fees for services rendered with respect to such claim, but the total amount of the fees so determined in any case shall not exceed 10 per centum of the total amount paid pursuant to the award.

The Commission shall notify all claimants of the approval or denial of their claims, stating the reasons and grounds therefor, and if approved, shall notify such claimants of the amount for which such claims are approved.

Any claimant whose claim is denied, or is approved for less than the full amount of such claim, shall be entitled, under such regulations as the Commission may prescribe, to a hearing before the Commission, or its duly authorized representatives, with respect to such claim.

There shall be deducted from the amount of each payment made pursuant to subsection ( C ) of Section 8, as reimbursement for the expenses incurred by the United States, an amount equal to 5 per centum of such payment.

after completing the payments prescribed by paragraphs ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) of this subsection, to make payments, from time to time in ratable proportions, on account of the unpaid principal of all awards in the principal amount of more than $1,000, according to the proportions which the unpaid principal of such awards bear to the total amount in the fund available for distribution at the time such payments are made ; ;

Determine the ratio that the amount being allotted is to the sum of the products for all the States.

( Each State's unadjusted allotment for any fiscal year, which exceeds its minimum allotment described in item 13 below by a percentage greater than one and one-half times the percentage by which the sum being allotted exceeds $23,000,000, must be reduced by the amount of the excess.

( Multiply the result obtained in item 3 above by the amount used for each State in item 1 above.

Upon receipt of an application which the Export-Import Bank is prepared to consider, the Export-Import Bank will inform the Department of Economic Affairs of the identity of the applicant, the nature of the proposed business, the amount of the proposed loan, and the general purposes for which the loan proceeds would be expended.