As with most lanthanides and actinides, actinium assumes oxidation state + 3 in nearly all its chemical compounds.

As with most lanthanides and actinides, actinium exists in the oxidation state + 3, and the Ac < sup > 3 +</ sup > ions are colorless in solutions.

The oxidation state + 3 originates from the 6d < sup > 1 </ sup > 7s < sup > 2 </ sup > electronic configuration of actinium, that is it easily donates 3 electrons assuming a stable closed-shell structure of the noble gas radon.

The oxidation state + 2 is only known for actinium dihydride ( AcH < sub > 2 </ sub >).

Except for AcPO < sub > 4 </ sub >, they are all similar to the corresponding lanthanum compounds and contain actinium in the oxidation state + 3.

In chemical compounds, they usually assume the oxidation state + 3, especially in solutions.

It always exhibits the oxidation state of + 2.

To separate berkelium from the unreacted americium, this solution was added to a mixture of ammonium and ammonium sulfate and heated to convert all the dissolved americium into the oxidation state + 6.

This trivalent oxidation state (+ 3 ) is the most stable, especially in aqueous solutions, but tetravalent (+ 4 ) and possibly divalent (+ 2 ) berkelium compounds are also known.

Chemical experiments have confirmed bohrium's predicted position as a heavier homologue to rhenium with the formation of a stable + 7 oxidation state.

The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the chemical properties of the element, such as electronegativity, ionization potential, preferred oxidation state ( s ), coordination number, and preferred types of bonds to form ( e. g., metallic, ionic, covalent ).

The most common oxidation state of carbon in inorganic compounds is + 4, while + 2 is found in carbon monoxide and other transition metal carbonyl complexes.

This conversion to the right is called disproportionation, because the ingredient chlorine both increases and decreases in formal oxidation state.

Chlorine exists in all odd numbered oxidation states from − 1 to + 7, as well as the elemental state of zero and four in chlorine dioxide ( see table below, and also structures in chlorite ).

A few calcium compounds in the oxidation state + 1 have also been investigated recently.

Like zinc, it prefers oxidation state + 2 in most of its compounds and like mercury it shows a low melting point compared to transition metals.

Although cadmium usually has an oxidation state of + 2, it also exists in the + 1 state.

Complexation reactions also include ligand exchange, in which one or more ligands are replaced by another, and redox processes which change the oxidation state of the central metal atom.

Isovalent substitution is where the ion that is substituting the original ion is of the same oxidation state as the ion it is replacing.

Aliovalent substitution is where the ion that is substituting the original ion is of a different oxidation state as the ion it is replacing.

All the members of the group readily portray their oxidation state of + 5 and the state becomes more stable as the group is descended.

Being a typical member of the lanthanide series, europium usually assumes the oxidation state + 3, but the oxidation state + 2 is also common: all europium compounds with oxidation state + 2 are slightly reducing.

Several other oxidation states are known, which range from + 2 to + 7 and can be identified by their characteristic optical absorption spectra.

Dysprosium combines with various non-metals at high temperatures to form binary compounds with varying composition and oxidation states + 3 and sometimes + 2, such as DyN, DyP, DyH < sub > 2 </ sub > and DyH < sub > 3 </ sub >; DyS, DyS < sub > 2 </ sub >, Dy < sub > 2 </ sub > S < sub > 3 </ sub > and Dy < sub > 5 </ sub > S < sub > 7 </ sub >; DyB < sub > 2 </ sub >, DyB < sub > 4 </ sub >, DyB < sub > 6 </ sub > and DyB < sub > 12 </ sub >, as well as Dy < sub > 3 </ sub > C and Dy < sub > 2 </ sub > C < sub > 3 </ sub >.

For this group, + 4 and + 3 states are also known for the heavier members and dubnium may also form these reducing oxidation states.

For the initial development an oxidation pond was constructed as shown in Figure 1.

For example, when atomic sodium reacts with atomic chlorine, sodium donates one electron and attains an oxidation state of + 1.

Chlorine accepts the electron and its oxidation state is reduced to − 1.

Exhaust from a spark ignition engine consists of the following: nitrogen 70 to 75 % ( by volume ), water vapor 10 to 12 %, carbon dioxide 10 to 13. 5 %, hydrogen 0. 5 to 2 %, oxygen 0. 2 to 2 %, carbon monoxide: 0. 1 to 6 %, unburnt hydrocarbons and partial oxidation products ( e. g. aldehydes ) 0. 5 to 1 %, nitrogen monoxide 0. 01 to 0. 4 %, nitrous oxide < 100 ppm, sulfur dioxide 15 to 60 ppm, traces of other compounds such as fuel additives and lubricants, also halogen and metallic compounds, and other particles.

Common oxidation states of gold include + 1 ( gold ( I ) or aurous compounds ) and + 3 ( gold ( III ) or auric compounds ).

Gadolinium metal possesses unusual metallurgic properties, to the extent that as little as 1 % gadolinium can significantly improve the workability and resistance to high temperature oxidation of iron, chromium, and related alloys.

Early postulates by bio-inorganic chemists claimed that possibility # 1 ( above ) was correct and that iron should exist in oxidation state II.

Thallium shows an even stronger effect, making oxidation to thallium ( I ) more likely than to thallium ( III ), making + 1 the more likely oxidation state.

It shows two main oxidation states, which are + 1 and + 3, with latter being more stable, whereas the only common oxidation state of gallium is + 3 and thallium shows + 1 more likely than + 3, with thallium ( III ) being a moderately strong oxidizing agent, while indium ( III ) is stable and indium ( I ) is a powerful reducing agent.

Elemental rubidium is highly reactive, with properties similar to those of other elements in Group 1, such as very rapid oxidation in air.

Rhenium shows in its compounds a wide variety of oxidation states ranging from − 1 to + 7.

The most common oxidation state of silver is + 1 ( for example, silver nitrate, AgNO < sub > 3 </ sub >); the less common + 2 compounds ( for example, silver ( II ) fluoride, AgF < sub > 2 </ sub >), and the even less common + 3 ( for example, potassium tetrafluoroargentate, KAgF < sub > 4 </ sub >) and even + 4 compounds ( for example, potassium hexafluoroargentate, K < sub > 2 </ sub > AgF < sub > 6 </ sub >) are also known.

In this reaction the oxidation state of the metal cation oscillates between n and n + 1.

Tantalum compounds with oxidation states as low as − 1 have been reported in 2008.

Thallium tends to oxidize to the + 3 and + 1 oxidation states as ionic salts.

They can all be cut easily with a knife due to their softness, exposing a shiny surface that tarnishes rapidly in air due to oxidation.

Although oxidation reactions are crucial for life, they can also be damaging ; plants and animals maintain complex systems of multiple types of antioxidants, such as glutathione, vitamin C, and vitamin E as well as enzymes such as catalase, superoxide dismutase and various peroxidases.

Combustion is not necessarily favorable to the maximum degree of oxidation and it can be temperature-dependent.

Partially oxidized compounds are also a concern ; partial oxidation of ethanol can produce harmful acetaldehyde, and carbon can produce toxic carbon monoxide.

CVD oxide invariably has lower quality than thermal oxide, but thermal oxidation can only be used in the earliest stages of IC manufacturing.

On the contrary, many ions with high oxidation numbers, such as,,,, ) can gain one or two extra electrons and are strong oxidizing agents.

In organic chemistry, in addition to oxidation, reduction or acid-base reactions, a number of other reactions can take place which involve covalent bonds between carbon atoms or carbon and heteroatoms ( such as oxygen, nitrogen, halogens, etc .).

which is shown as reduction but, in fact, the SHE can act as either the anode or the cathode, depending on the relative oxidation / reduction potential of the other electrode / electrolyte combination.

It rewards the user with a knowledge of oxidation states, which can be valuable.

Preservative food additives can be antimicrobial ; which inhibit the growth of bacteria or fungi, including mold, or antioxidant ; such as oxygen absorbers, which inhibit the oxidation of food constituents.

The Grenache vins doux naturels can be made in an oxidised or unoxidised style whereas the Muscat wines are protected from oxidation to retain their freshness.

The ions are described by their oxidation state and their ease of formation can be inferred from the ionization potential ( for cations ) or from the electron affinity ( anions ) of the parent elements.

The oxidation of sulfides leading to the formation of sulfuric acid can also be one of the corrosion factors in karst formation.

The use of some such materials is sometimes restricted by their poor resistance to oxidation ( e. g., molybdenum disulfide can only be used up to 350 ° C in air, but 1100 ° C in reducing environments ).

In used fluids the oxidation products can be toxic as well.

Sulfate minerals commonly form as evaporites, where they precipitate out of evaporating saline waters ; alternative, sulfates can also be found in hydrothermal vein systems associated with sulfides, or as oxidation products of sulfides.

Environmental pollutants can react with paper to form acids that promote oxidation, creating more acid as a by-product, which results in a positive feedback loop of autocatalytic destruction.

Oxide films can also be grown by the technique of thermal oxidation, in which the ( typically silicon ) wafer is exposed to oxygen and / or steam, to grow a thin surface layer of silicon dioxide.

Chromocene can be prepared from chromium hexacarbonyl by direct reaction with cyclopentadiene in the presence of diethylamine ; in this case, the formal deprotonation of the cyclopentadiene is followed by reduction of the resulting protons to hydrogen gas, facilitating the oxidation of the metal centre.

The degree of oxidation can range from 8 % to 85 %, depending on the variety and production style.