In 1948, as a consequence of their studies of nucleosynthesis in the early expanding Big Bang universe model, they made the first theoretical prediction of the existence of a residual, homogeneous, isotopic, blackbody radiation ( cosmic microwave background radiation ) that pervades the universe as a vestige of the initial Big Bang explosion.

The average temperature of the universe today is approximately 2. 73 kelvins, based on measurements of cosmic microwave background radiation.

* The isotropy of the cosmic background radiation is another indicator that the universe does not rotate.

Thermodynamics of the universe is a field of study that explores which form of energy dominates the cosmos-relativistic particles which are referred to as radiation, or non-relativistic particles which are referred to as matter.

As the universe expands, both matter and radiation in it become diluted.

Thus with the expansion of the universe, radiation becomes less dominant than matter.

The very early universe is said to have been ' radiation dominated ' and as such radiation controlled the deceleration of expansion.

The solution is an expanding universe ; due to this expansion the radiation and matter in the universe are cooled down and become diluted.

At first, the expansion is slowed down by gravitation due to the radiation and matter content of the universe.

Cosmological perturbation theory, which describes the evolution of slight inhomogeneities in the early universe, has allowed cosmologists to precisely calculate the angular power spectrum of the radiation, and it has been measured by the recent satellite experiments ( COBE and WMAP ) and many ground and balloon-based experiments ( such as Degree Angular Scale Interferometer, Cosmic Background Imager, and Boomerang ).

In cosmology, cosmic microwave background ( CMB ) radiation ( also CMBR, CBR, MBR, and relic radiation ) is thermal radiation filling the observable universe almost uniformly.

Cosmic background radiation is well explained as radiation left over from an early stage in the development of the universe, and its discovery is considered a landmark test of the Big Bang model of the universe.

As the universe expanded, both the plasma and the radiation filling it grew cooler.

These atoms could no longer absorb the thermal radiation, and the universe became transparent instead of being an opaque fog.

Precise measurements of cosmic background radiation are critical to cosmology, since any proposed model of the universe must explain this radiation.

Instead, its existence and properties are inferred from its gravitational effects on visible matter, radiation, and the large scale structure of the universe.

Dark matter's existence is inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter and gravitational lensing of background radiation, and was originally hypothesized to account for discrepancies between calculations of the mass of galaxies, clusters of galaxies and the entire universe made through dynamical and general relativistic means, and calculations based on the mass of the visible " luminous " matter these objects contain: stars and the gas and dust of the interstellar and intergalactic medium.

Now, of course, that the Russians are the nuclear villains, radiation is a nastier word than it was in the mid, when the US was testing in the atmosphere.

It could have continued testing to the full on the grounds that the radiation danger was far less than the danger of Communist world domination.

Forty-nine hours after an atomic burst the radiation intensity is only about 1 percent of what it was an hour after the explosion.

Steady radiation which was presumably of thermal origin was observed from Venus at 3.15 and 9.4 cm, and from Mars and Jupiter at 3.15 cm in 1956 ( Mayer, McCullough, and Sloanaker, 1958, A, B, C ), and from Saturn at 3.75 cm in 1957 ( Drake and Ewen, 1958 ).

In addition, the inner surface of the carbon shield was covered with aluminum foil to reduce radiation.

This temperature was taken as environmental temperature to which the anode holder was exposed as far as radiation is concerned.

The radiation loss from the anode surface was computed according to Af where Af is the mean of the fourth powers of the temperatures Af and Af calculated analogously to equation ( 1 ).

The x-ray diffraction pattern of the material, taken with CuK**ya radiation, indicated the presence of no extra lines and was in good agreement with the pattern of Douglass.

The Bohr model of the atom fixed the problem of energy loss from radiation from a ground state ( by declaring that there was no state below this ), and more importantly explained the origin of spectral lines.

The death of Marie Curie at age 66 from leukemia was probably caused by prolonged exposure to high doses of ionizing radiation, but it is not clear if this was due to alpha radiation or X-rays.

The trait arose a number of times in different groups during the Cenozoic, and in each instance was immediately followed by an adaptive radiation.

While the scientific community was once divided between supporters of the Big Bang and those of alternative cosmological models, most scientists became convinced that some version of the Big Bang scenario best fit observations after the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation in 1964, and especially when its spectrum ( i. e., the amount of radiation measured at each wavelength ) was found to match that of thermal radiation from a black body.

The other was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow, who introduced big bang nucleosynthesis ( BBN ) and whose associates, Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman, predicted the cosmic microwave background radiation ( CMB ).

This was the point where the canine radiation began.

The heat loads that must be removed by the cooling system include conduction through the support system, radiation from warmer to colder surfaces, AC losses in the conductor ( during charge and discharge ), and losses from the cold – to-warm power leads that connect the cold coil to the power conditioning system.

The lack of infrared radiation from the warmer parts of the disk near Tau Ceti imply an inner cut-off at a radius of.

Thus, at any given moment, the areas along the object's dusk line are warmer than the corresponding areas along the dawn line, and emit more heat radiation.

Usually, within the lower atmosphere ( the troposphere ) the air near the surface of the Earth is warmer than the air above it, largely because the atmosphere is heated from below as solar radiation warms the Earth's surface, which in turn then warms the layer of the atmosphere directly above it, e. g., by thermals ( convective heat transfer ).

Thermal radiation moves from a warmer surface to a cooler one.

" However, he believes that decreasing tropical cirrus clouds in a warmer world will allow more longwave radiation to escape the atmosphere, counteracting the warming.

Hence clouds exchange thermal radiation between their bases and the underlying planetary surface ( land or ocean ) by absorbing and re-emitting this infrared radiation at the prevailing temperature: the lower the cloud base, the warmer the cloud particles and the higher the rate of emission.

The lower temperature water will tend to freeze from the top, reducing further heat loss by radiation and air convection, while the warmer water will tend to freeze from the bottom and sides because of water convection.

At night, the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation, such as heat energy from the surface, allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons.

This results in warmer average temperatures from the increase in solar radiation reaching the surface.

* Arctic amplification-The effect of sea ice melting replace high albedo ice with low albedo sea that absorb the radiation from the sun get warmer and melt more ice.

Land inside Callejón is protected from the wind by lateral walls which also absorb solar radiation during the day and release it during the night ; this creates a microclimate zone 2 to 3 ° C warmer than the ground above it.

At night, the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation, such as heat energy from the surface, allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons.