The complexity of this law served as an impetus behind the development of algebra ( Arabic: al-jabr ) by the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī and other medieval Islamic mathematicians.

Resolution of these scholarly questions remained very difficult so long as no complete version of the Diatessaron in Syriac or Greek had been recovered ; while the medieval translations that had survived — in Arabic and Latin — both relied on texts that had been heavily corrected to conform better with later canonical versions of the separate Gospel texts.

" However, " The Scholastics-later medieval philosophers, theologians, and scientists-were helped by the Arabic translators and commentaries, but they hardly needed to struggle against a flat-earth legacy from the early middle ages ( 500-1050 ).

As a result some texts of Galen exist only in Arabic translation, while others exist only in medieval Latin translations of the Arabic.

The term aketon, originally medieval French alcottonem might be a loan from Arabic al-qutn " cotton ( definite article-the cotton )".

Other historians urge caution regarding claims of Islamic firearms use in the 1204-1324 period as late medieval Arabic texts used the same word for gunpowder, naft, that they used for an earlier incendiary naptha.

Many Greek and Arabic texts on mathematics were then translated into Latin, which led to further development of mathematics in medieval Europe.

Later he would visit Mogadishu, the then pre-eminent city of the " Land of the Berbers " ( بلد البربر Balad al-Barbar, the medieval Arabic term for the Horn of Africa ).

Jerusalem had an extensive library not only of ancient and medieval Latin works but of Arabic literature, much of which was apparently captured from Usamah ibn Munqidh and his entourage after a shipwreck in 1154.

Aside from Latin, the standard written language of medieval Europe, the populace of crusader Jerusalem communicated in vernacular forms of French and Italian ; Greek, Armenian, and even Arabic were used by Frankish settlers.

His theory was first applied by medieval Arabic geographers who extended the Roman mile to 1. 04 nautical miles.

A collection of one hundred aphorisms about astrology called the Centiloquium, ascribed to Ptolemy, was widely reproduced and commented on by Arabic, Latin and Hebrew scholars, and often bound together in medieval manuscripts after the Tetrabiblos as a kind of summation.

For many years, Mogadishu stood as the pre-eminent city in the بلاد البربر, Bilad-al-Barbar (" Land of the Berbers "), which was the medieval Arabic term for the Horn of Africa.

The medieval Arabs adopted the distillation technique of the Alexandrian Greeks, and written records in Arabic begin in the 9th century, but again these were not distillations of alcohol.

Some scholars interested in the relationships between Western philosophy and the history of ideas in Islam and Arabic philosophical medieval sources may have been influenced by Heidegger's work, including recent studies by Nader El-Bizri.

The terms " comedy " and " satire " became synonymous after Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Arabic writers and Islamic philosophers such as Abu Bischr, his pupil Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes.

The tales themselves trace their roots back to ancient and medieval Arabic, Persian, Indian, Egyptian and Mesopotamian folklore and literature.

A variation of this device is the self-fulfilling dream, which dates back to medieval Arabic literature.

The literary device of the unreliable narrator was used in several fictional medieval Arabic tales of the One Thousand and One Nights.

Syriac sources mention it as, and in medieval Arabic texts the name is usually Ṭaysafūn ( طيسفون ) or Qaṭaysfūn ( قطيسفون ), in Modern Arabic al-Mada ' in ( المدائن ).

His vocabulary is almost entirely classical, with only a few medieval constructions such as " loricator " ( someone who makes armour, a calque of the Arabic " zarra ") and " assellare " ( to empty one's bowels ).

Watson adds, " After examining the motives for the Muslim drive north of the Pyrenees, one can attach a macrohistorical significance to the encounter between the Franks and Andalusi Muslims at Tours-Poitiers, especially when one considers the attention paid to the Franks in Arabic literature and the successful expansion of Muslims elsewhere in the medieval period.

Ancient Arabs also used election to choose their caliph, Uthman and Ali, in the early medieval Rashidun Caliphate ; and to select the Pala king Gopala in early medieval Bengal.

The medieval scholar Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn Masudi ( d. 956 ) wrote that Allah commanded the Earth to absorb the water, and certain portions which were slow in obeying received salt water in punishment and so became dry and arid.

In the medieval and early modern period, the field is indebted to Muslim medicine such as Ishaq bin Ali Rahawi ( who wrote the Conduct of a Physician, the first book dedicated to medical ethics ) and Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi ( known as Rhazes in the West ), Jewish thinkers such as Maimonides, Roman Catholic scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, and the case-oriented analysis ( casuistry ) of Catholic moral theology.

** the new 10, 000 Iraqi dinar banknote has Abu Ali Hasan Ibn al-Haitham ( known as Alhazen to medieval scholars in the West ) on the front and Hadba Minaret on the back.

Ali Baba ( ) is a character from medieval Arabic literature.

The medieval " Tekyeh Amir Chakhmagh ", Yazd, Iran. A Tekyeh is a place where Shias gather to mourn the killing of Husayn bin Ali.

There are also a few parts of both medieval city walls left, most of them integrated into more recent buildings, but some others still visible.

The idea has also some backing in German legend, for example the Gesta Treverorum ( a 12th century German medieval chronicle ) makes Trebeta son of Ninus the founder of Trier.

He also has a residence next to Canterbury Cathedral on the site of the medieval Archbishop's Palace.

During the same period a movement with similar aims had also developed in France under the direction of Eugène Viollet-le-Duc a French architect and theorist, famous for his " restorations " of medieval buildings.

Adam of Bremen ( also: Adamus Bremensis ) was a German medieval chronicler.

The ballad probably derives its name from medieval French dance songs or " ballares " ( from which we also get ballet ), as did the alternative rival form that became the French Ballade.

In medieval England, boroughs were also entitled to elect members of parliament.

Cranmer's work of simplification and revision was also applied to the Daily Offices, which were to become Morning, and Evening Prayer ; and which he hoped would also serve as a daily form of prayer to be used by the Laity, thus replacing both the late medieval lay observation of the Latin Hours of the Virgin, and its English equivalent, the Primer.

The concept of zero ( which was also called " cipher "), which we all now think of as natural, was alien to medieval Europe, so confusing and ambiguous to common Europeans that in arguments people would say " talk clearly and not so far fetched as a cipher ".

A citadel is also a term of the third part of a medieval castle, with higher walls than the rest.

In Scotland, their medieval and post-medieval use is also documented into the early 18th century.

According to Mircea Eliade, the medieval " Gioacchinian myth [...] of universal renovation in a more or less imminent future " has influenced a number of modern theories of history, such as those of Lessing ( who explicitly compares his views to those of medieval " enthusiasts "), Fichte, Hegel, and Schelling, and has also influenced a number of Russian writers.

Christine de Pizan ( also seen as de Pisan ) ( 1363 – c. 1430 ) was a Venetian-born late medieval author who challenged misogyny and stereotypes prevalent in the late medieval culture.

In medieval times Delphi was also called Kastri and was built on the archaeological site.

Smith Street was also the site of the town pillory in medieval times.

This statement was likely picked up by the author of the Estoire Merlin, or Vulgate Merlin, where the author ( who was fond of fanciful folk etymologies ) asserts that Escalibor " is a Hebrew name which means in French ' cuts iron, steel, and wood '" (" c ' est non Ebrieu qui dist en franchois trenche fer & achier et fust "; note that the word for " steel " here, achier, also means " blade " or " sword " and comes from medieval Latin aciarium, a derivative of acies " sharp ", so there is no direct connection with Latin chalybs in this etymology ).

In addition to L, P and many other medieval manuscripts, there are also fragments of plays recorded on papyrus.

The Poetic Edda, also known as Sæmundar Edda or the Elder Edda, is a collection of Old Norse poems from the Icelandic medieval manuscript Codex Regius (" Royal Book ").

The new name " Falstaff " probably derived from the medieval knight Sir John Fastolf ( who was also a Lollard ).

The term feudalism has also been applied — often inappropriately or pejoratively — to non-Western societies where institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to prevail.