By the 1870s, the Transcontinental Railroad reached its terminus in Oakland.

By the late 1870s, however, croquet had been eclipsed by another fashionable game, tennis, and many of the newly-created croquet clubs, including the All England club at Wimbledon, converted some or all of their lawns into tennis courts.

By the 1870s, Herbert Spencer and other classical liberals concluded that historical development was turning against them.

By the 1870s, British physicist William Crookes and others were able to evacuate tubes to a lower pressure, below 10 < sup >− 6 </ sup > atm.

By the 1870s, the canal's goods traffic had dwindled to just three major types of bulk goods-forest products, coal and ore, none of which required rapid transportation.

By the 1870s, the Sublime Porte's reforms aimed at checking the Ottoman Empire's disintegration had clearly failed.

By the end of the 1870s, a major change had taken place: philosophy of the rationalist or eclectic kind, generally Kantian, had taken over rhetoric as the true end stage of secondary education ( the so-called Class of Philosophy bridged secondary and university education ).

By the mid 1870s, evolutionism was triumphant.

By the mid 1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive.

By the 1870s, efficient generators that produced alternating current ( alternators ) were available, and it was found that alternating current could power an induction coil directly, without an interrupter.

By the 1870s, the firm was offering both designs for embroideries and finished works.

By the 1870s, McGonagall and his family were struggling.

By the end of the American Civil War, the Observatory's clocks were linked via telegraph to ring the alarm bells in all of the Washington, D. C. firehouses three times a day, and by the early 1870s the Observatory's daily noon time signal was being distributed nationwide via the Western Union Telegraph Company.

By the 1870s, breweries had become the largest users of commercial refrigeration units, though some still relied on harvested ice.

By the 1870s the future king had taken a keen interest in horseracing and steeplechasing.

By the 1870s, Reconstruction had officially provided freedmen with equal rights under the constitution, and blacks were voting and taking political office.

By the 1870s J. C. Godeffroy und Sohn of Hamburg ( operating out of Samoa ) began to dominate the Tuvalu copra trade, which company was in 1879 taken over by Handels-und Plantagen-Gesellschaft der Südsee-Inseln zu Hamburg ( DHPG ).

By the later 1870s Degas had mastered not only the traditional medium of oil on canvas, but pastel as well.

By the 1870s Echuca had risen to prominence as Australia's largest inland port.

By the end of the 1870s the stage was set for discontent among the aboriginal people of the prairies: the bison population was in serious decline ( creating enormous economic difficulties ) and, in an attempt to assert control over aboriginal settlement, the federal government often violated the terms of the treaties it had signed during the latter part of the decade.

By the late 1870s, white Democrats had regained their political power in the state legislature and passed measures to disfranchise the blacks, which essentially lasted until after the passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s.

By the late 1870s, hardship was experienced by everyone.

" By the early 1870s water diversions were being used to irrigate an extensive area of corn and other crops.

By the early 1870s, what was referred to as " North Arkansas College " ( not to be confused with the modern community college by the same name in Harrison, Arkansas ) was founded and students from all over the state attended.

By the late 1870s, Springville was large enough to warrant a post office, but there already existed a town called Springville, California ( now part of Camarillo, in Ventura County ) in the state of California.

By 1740 the production of gin had increased to six times that of beer and because of its cheapness it became popular with the poor, leading to the so-called Gin Craze.

By the early 19th century, encouraged by lower duties on gin, the gin houses or " Gin Palaces " had spread from London to most cities and towns in Britain, with most of the new establishments illegal and unlicensed.

By 1860 the town had male and female academies, a hotel, cotton gin, oil mill, blacksmith shop, tavern, cabinet shop, drug store, and several general merchandise stores.

By 1870 a flour mill and cotton gin were operating in Yorkville.

By the late 1870s, Brighton had two dry goods stores, three grocery stores, two saloons, two blacksmith shops, two wagon shops, one brick yard, one steam saw and grist mill, one steam cotton gin, a Baptist church, two physicians, and a population around 100.

By 1914 Gallatin had a population of 350, several churches, two general stores, a drugstore, a school, and a cotton gin.

By 1885, DeSoto was home to approximately 120 people, a cotton gin, and a general store.

By 1860, Henry Cade had erected a sawmill and a cotton gin.

By 1914 Sandia had 150 inhabitants, a bank, two general stores, and a cotton gin.

By 1908, when Woodsboro was officially platted, a school had been established, and the town already had grown to include about twenty-five buildings, including the hotel, a cotton gin, a lumberyard, and a number of dwellings.

The local economy included a grain elevator, a cotton gin and mill, a marble works and some coal minesw, By 1930, the population was back down to 264, but by 1960, was up to 638.

By 1880, the Encyclopaedia Britannica ( 9th edition ) was reporting, " Grains of paradise are to some extent used in veterinary practice but for the most part illegally to give a fictitious strength to malt liquors, gin and cordials ".

By the 1980s, the Singapore Sling was often little more than gin, bottled sweet and sour, and grenadine.

By 1892 Fontana had, according to the Texas State Gazetteer, an estimated population of 175 inhabitants, Baptist and Methodist churches, a steam sawmill, a steam gin and gristmill, two general stores, and a newspaper named the Journal.

By 1946, a church a store and a gin were established, but by 1988 only the church remained.

By 1740, six times more gin than beer was being produced, and of the 15, 000 drinking establishments in London, half were gin-shops.

By 1721, however, Middlesex magistrates were already decrying gin as " the principal cause of all the vice & debauchery committed among the inferior sort of people ".

By 1743, the people of England were drinking 2. 2 gallons ( 10 litres ) of gin annually per head of population.