By the 1870s, the Transcontinental Railroad reached its terminus in Oakland.

By the late 1870s, however, croquet had been eclipsed by another fashionable game, tennis, and many of the newly-created croquet clubs, including the All England club at Wimbledon, converted some or all of their lawns into tennis courts.

By the 1870s, Herbert Spencer and other classical liberals concluded that historical development was turning against them.

By the 1870s, British physicist William Crookes and others were able to evacuate tubes to a lower pressure, below 10 < sup >− 6 </ sup > atm.

By the 1870s, the canal's goods traffic had dwindled to just three major types of bulk goods-forest products, coal and ore, none of which required rapid transportation.

By the 1870s, the Sublime Porte's reforms aimed at checking the Ottoman Empire's disintegration had clearly failed.

By the end of the 1870s, a major change had taken place: philosophy of the rationalist or eclectic kind, generally Kantian, had taken over rhetoric as the true end stage of secondary education ( the so-called Class of Philosophy bridged secondary and university education ).

By the mid 1870s, evolutionism was triumphant.

By the mid 1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive.

By the 1870s, efficient generators that produced alternating current ( alternators ) were available, and it was found that alternating current could power an induction coil directly, without an interrupter.

By the 1870s, the firm was offering both designs for embroideries and finished works.

By the 1870s, McGonagall and his family were struggling.

By the end of the American Civil War, the Observatory's clocks were linked via telegraph to ring the alarm bells in all of the Washington, D. C. firehouses three times a day, and by the early 1870s the Observatory's daily noon time signal was being distributed nationwide via the Western Union Telegraph Company.

By the 1870s, breweries had become the largest users of commercial refrigeration units, though some still relied on harvested ice.

By the 1870s the future king had taken a keen interest in horseracing and steeplechasing.

By the 1870s, Reconstruction had officially provided freedmen with equal rights under the constitution, and blacks were voting and taking political office.

By the 1870s J. C. Godeffroy und Sohn of Hamburg ( operating out of Samoa ) began to dominate the Tuvalu copra trade, which company was in 1879 taken over by Handels-und Plantagen-Gesellschaft der Südsee-Inseln zu Hamburg ( DHPG ).

By the later 1870s Degas had mastered not only the traditional medium of oil on canvas, but pastel as well.

By the 1870s Echuca had risen to prominence as Australia's largest inland port.

By the end of the 1870s the stage was set for discontent among the aboriginal people of the prairies: the bison population was in serious decline ( creating enormous economic difficulties ) and, in an attempt to assert control over aboriginal settlement, the federal government often violated the terms of the treaties it had signed during the latter part of the decade.

By the late 1870s, white Democrats had regained their political power in the state legislature and passed measures to disfranchise the blacks, which essentially lasted until after the passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s.

By the late 1870s, hardship was experienced by everyone.

" By the early 1870s water diversions were being used to irrigate an extensive area of corn and other crops.

By the early 1870s, what was referred to as " North Arkansas College " ( not to be confused with the modern community college by the same name in Harrison, Arkansas ) was founded and students from all over the state attended.

By the late 1870s, Springville was large enough to warrant a post office, but there already existed a town called Springville, California ( now part of Camarillo, in Ventura County ) in the state of California.

By what right of superior virtue, Southerners ask, do the people of the North do this??

By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress.

The largest species are red alder ( A. rubra ) on the west coast of North America, and black alder ( A. glutinosa ), native to most of Europe and widely introduced elsewhere, both reaching over 30 m. By contrast, the widespread Alnus viridis ( green alder ) is rarely more than a 5 m tall shrub.

By the 1960s, as VFL clubs increasingly recruited the best players from other states, they began to dominate the competition and the last match was played in 1976, with North Adelaide being the last non-Victorian winner in 1972.

By the time of the cancellation, Nintendo's NES dominated the North American market, controlling 80 % while Atari Corp. controlled just 12 %.

By the mid 20th century, with the growing market for rare coins, the Sheldon system was adopted by the American Numismatic Association and most coin professionals in the North America.

By the mid-1960s, parts of Cambodia's eastern provinces were serving as bases for North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong ( NVA / VC ) forces operating against South Vietnam, and the port of Sihanoukville was being used to supply them.

By 1973, the CPK were fighting battles against government forces with little or no North Vietnamese troop support, and they controlled nearly 60 % of Cambodia's territory and 25 % of its population.

By far, the best known representation is the animated Wile E. Coyote, Super Genius, whose popularity has spread the three-syllable Spanish pronunciation of the word coyote throughout English-speaking North America.

By the Oligocene, all three subfamilies of canids ( Hesperocyoninae, Borophaginae, and Caninae ) had appeared in the fossil records of North America.

By 0. 3 Mya, Canis lupus ( the gray wolf ) was fully developed and had spread throughout Europe and northern Asia ; and Beringia offered a way to North America.

By the late 1950s a wave of Japanese machines forced most North American typewriter companies to cease business, but Tramiel instead turned to adding machines.

By this theory, the name of the Geordie lamp attached to the North East pit men themselves.

By 1866 any native of the North East could be called a Geordie.

By 2006, only two elderly Cubans still crossed the base's North East Gate daily to work on the base, because the Cuban government prohibits new recruitment.

By 25 January, Operation North Wind had officially ended.

By 8500 – 8000 BC farming communities began to spread to Anatolia, North Africa and north Mesopotamia.

" By 1965 Rosenbloom had decided to stop manufacturing guitars and chose to become the exclusive North American distributor for Ibanez guitars.

According to the Harvard University Library, " By the late 19th century, 70 to 90 % of the urban populations of Europe and North America were infected with the TB bacillus, and about 80 % of those individuals who developed active tuberculosis died of it.

By the terms of the Local Government Act 2001, the counties of North Tipperary and South Tipperary were created.

By linking acquisition of new lands in Oregon ( with no slavery ) and Texas ( with slavery ), he hoped to satisfy both North and South.

By the 1970s and 1980s the sport had expanded beyond Japan and had reached North America and Europe.

By the end of the 20th century, almost the only steam power still in regular use in North America and Western European countries was on heritage railways largely aimed at tourists and / or railroad hobbyists, known as ' railfans ' or ' railway enthusiasts ', although some narrow gauge lines in Germany which form part of the public transport system, running to all-year-round timetables retain steam for all or part of their motive power.

By the late 1960s, few major railroads in North America, Europe and Oceania continued to operate steam locomotives, although significant numbers still existed outside these areas.

By the end of the last ice age ( 10, 000 – 12, 000 years ago ), camelids were extinct in North America.