Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself.

However, in 2009, the family authorities decided not to agree to DNA testing.

" The DNA testing was originally proposed to add new members, many of whose family record books were lost during 20th-century upheavals, to the Confucian family tree.

Output from a cDNA DNA microarray | microarray used in testing

CMT can be diagnosed through symptoms, through measurement of the speed of nerve impulses ( electromyography ), through biopsy of the nerve, and through DNA testing.

DNA testing can give a definitive diagnosis, but not all the genetic markers for CMT are known. CMT is first noticed when someone develops lower leg weakness and foot deformities such as foot drop, hammertoes and high arches.

In 2007, Echols petitioned for a retrial based on a statute permitting post-conviction testing of DNA evidence due to technological advances made since 1994 which might provide exoneration for the wrongfully convicted.

As reported in the journal Science, testing of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA by Warren Johnson and Stephen O ' Brien of the U. S. National Cancer Institute demonstrated that ancient cats evolved into eight main lineages that diverged in the course of at least 10 migrations ( in both directions ) from continent to continent via the Bering land bridge and Isthmus of Panama, with the Panthera genus being the oldest and the Felis genus being the youngest.

On the other hand, since the advent of DNA testing to verify parentage, most breed registries now allow artificial insemination ( AI ), embryo transfer ( ET ), or both.

In 2010, bones were discovered in the ruins of a Bulgarian church and two years later, after DNA and radio carbon testing proved the bones belonged to a Middle Eastern man who lived in the first century AD, scientists said that the remains could conceivably have belonged to John the Baptist.

After the rumors surfaced that Bay's natural father was a filmmaker, there was much speculation about Frankenheimer, who continued to deny the story and told the Los Angeles Times that there had once been " tests " to determine paternity ( long before DNA testing ).

In the era before blood and DNA testing, Landis relied on witness testimony and awarded the child to Ryan.

DNA testing indicates resident males nearly always mate with females from other pods.

* DNA testing of the Saint Luke corpse

DNA testing linked Albert to genetic material taken from the bite marks and from semen in Perhach's underwear.

However, the Y-chromosome and mtDNA ( mitochondrial DNA ) testing processes for direct-line male and female ancestors can fail to pick up the heritage of many ancestors.

( Some critics thought the PBS series did not sufficiently explain the limitations of DNA testing for assessment of heritage.

DNA testing has limitations and should not be depended on by individuals to answer all their questions about heritage.

No tribes accept DNA testing to satisfy their differing qualifications for membership, usually based on documented blood quantum or descent from ancestor ( s ) listed on the Dawes Rolls.

DNA testing is not sufficient to qualify a person for specific tribal membership, as it cannot distinguish among Native American groups.

Some tribes have begun requiring genealogical DNA testing, but this is usually related to an individual's proving parentage or direct descent from a certified member.

Berg was frustrated by the expense of teaching students about recombinant DNA from textbooks instead of in wet labs, used for the testing and analysis of chemicals, drugs, and other materials or biological matter.

A team of 24 identified the victims using full-body X-rays, dental examinations, fingerprinting, blood tests, and DNA testing.

These include DNA cloning for sequencing, DNA-based phylogeny, or functional analysis of genes ; the diagnosis of hereditary diseases ; the identification of genetic fingerprints ( used in forensic sciences and paternity testing ); and the detection and diagnosis of infectious diseases.

The large size and complexity of PKD1 and PKD2 genes, as well as marked allelic heterogeneity, present obstacles to molecular testing by direct DNA analysis.

The order is clearly circumscribed on the basis of DNA sequence analysis, but is difficult to define morphologically, since its members are structurally diverse.

Abzymes are potential tools in biotechnology, e. g., to perform specific actions on DNA.

* Base pair, a pair of connected nucleotides on complementary DNA and RNA strands

In 1998 the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny of flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants.

While scientists do not always agree on how to classify organisms, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA sequences as data, has driven many recent revisions along more efficient, evolutionary lines and is likely to continue to do so.

Instead it generates the sequences of many thousands of small DNA fragments ( ranging from 35 to 900 nucleotides long, depending on the sequencing technology ).

In molecular biology and genetics, the linking between two nitrogenous bases on opposite complementary DNA or certain types of RNA strands that are connected via hydrogen bonds is called a base pair ( often abbreviated bp ).

Other chemicals, known as DNA intercalators, fit into the gap between adjacent bases on a single strand and induce frameshift mutations by " masquerading " as a base, causing the DNA replication machinery to skip or insert additional nucleotides at the intercalated site.

Most of the biosecurity concerns in synthetic biology, however, focused on the role of DNA synthesis and the risk of producing genetic material of lethal viruses ( e. g. 1918 Spanish flu, polio ) in the lab.

Though there is some debate on the exact mechanism of conjugation it seems that the pili are not the structures through which DNA exchange occurs.

The amount of chromosomal DNA that is transferred depends on how long the two conjugating bacteria remain in contact.

All known forms of life are based on the same fundamental biochemical organisation: genetic information encoded in DNA, transcribed into RNA, through the effect of protein-and RNA-enzymes, then translated into proteins by ( highly similar ) ribosomes, with ATP, NADH and others as energy sources, etc.

In prokaryotes, DNA is usually arranged as a loop, which is tightly coiled in on itself, sometimes accompanied by one or more smaller, circular DNA molecules called plasmids.

The overall structure depends on the stage of the cell cycle: during interphase the chromatin is structurally loose to allow access to RNA and DNA polymerases that transcribe and replicate the DNA.

The local structure of chromatin during interphase depends on the genes present on the DNA: DNA coding genes that are actively transcribed (" turned on ") are more loosely packaged and are found associated with RNA polymerases ( referred to as euchromatin ) while DNA coding inactive genes (" turned off ") are found associated with structural proteins and are more tightly packaged ( heterochromatin ).

It was found that these “ ghosts ” could adsorb to bacteria that were susceptible to T2, even though they contained no DNA and were simply the remains of the original bacterial capsule.

This evidence remains inconclusive as it excludes the photographic or DNA evidence that many experts cite as necessary before the presence of the species can be confirmed.

In the recovery process, remains of the five hijackers were identified through process of elimination, since their DNA did not match any from the victims, and put into the custody of the FBI.

While some preserved human remains may contain DNA, peat bogs such as Lindow Moss are generally poor for such a purpose, and it is unlikely that DNA could be recovered from Lindow Man.

In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any DNA samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI.

In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any DNA samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI.

Measurements of these rates using time-resolved FRET revealed that DNA within the nucleosome remains fully wrapped for only 250 ms before it is unwrapped for 10-50 ms and then rapidly rewrapped.

This of course has since been completely disproved with the discovery of the final Romanov children remains and extensive DNA testing that connected these remains with those of Nicholas II, his wife and three children.

On April 30, 2008, Russian forensic scientists announced that DNA testing proves that the remains belong to the Tsarevich Alexei and to one of his sisters.

DNA information, made public in July 2008, that has been obtained from Ekaterinburg and repeatedly subject to independent testing by laboratories such as the University of Massachusetts Medical School, USA, and reveals that the final two missing Romanov remains are indeed authentic and that the entire Romanov family housed in the Ipatiev House, Ekaterinburg were executed in the early hours of 17 July 1918.

Moreover, data can be generated even when the DNA is degraded ( e. g. when it is found in bone remains.

In addition, DNA samples submitted by his girlfriend were matched to remains recovered in Shanksville.

In the recovery process at the Pentagon, remains of all five Flight 77 hijackers were identified through a process of elimination, as not matching any DNA samples for the victims, and put into custody of the FBI.

In February 2010, the results of DNA tests confirmed that he was the son of Akhenaten ( mummy KV55 ) and Akhenaten's sister and wife ( mummy KV35YL ), whose name is unknown but whose remains are positively identified as " The Younger Lady " mummy found in KV35 .< ref name =" Hawass2010 "> Hawass, Zahi et al.

Over 8 % of the human genome is made up of ( mostly decayed ) endogenous retrovirus sequences, as part of the over 42 % fraction that is recognizably derived of retrotransposons, while another 3 % can be identified to be the remains of DNA transposons.

Junk DNA remains a label for the portions of a genome sequence for which no discernible function had been identified.

However, DNA tests on Dunbar's son and nephew revealed the two were not related, thus establishing that the boy found in 1912 was not Bobby Dunbar, whose real fate remains unknown.

A 2006 mitochondrial DNA study of 12th to 13th century Islamic remains from Priego de Córdoba, Spain, indicates a higher proportion ( 4 %) of sub-Saharan African lineages.

On 30 April 2008, Russian forensic scientists announced that DNA testing proves that the remains belong to the Tsarevich Alexei and to one of his sisters.

In March 2009 the final results of the DNA testing were published by Dr. Michael Coble of the US Armed Forces DNA Identification Laboratory, proving conclusively that the remains of all four Grand Duchesses have now been accounted for, and no one escaped.