By the end of the century the Roman Catholic Church was beginning to make itself felt, mainly through such institutions as hospitals but also through its attitude towards organized labour.

Marble, Roman copy of a Greek original of the 4th century BCE, from the collection of Cardinal Albani

The type is represented by neo-Attic Imperial Roman copies of the late 1st or early 2nd century, modelled upon a supposed Greek bronze original made in the second quarter of the 5th century BCE, in a style similar to works of Polykleitos but more archaic.

In the late 2nd century CE floor mosaic from El Djem, Roman Thysdrus, he is identifiable as Apollo Helios by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire.

This system of ' counter casting ' continued into the late Roman empire and in medieval Europe, and persisted in limited use into the nineteenth century.

One example of archaeological evidence of the Roman abacus, shown here in reconstruction, dates to the 1st century AD.

Protracted conflict through the seventeenth century with more radical Protestants on the one hand and Roman Catholics who still recognised the primacy of the Pope on the other, resulted in an association of churches that were both deliberately vague about doctrinal principles, yet bold in developing parameters of acceptable deviation.

The Church of England ( which until the 20th century included the Church in Wales ) initially separated from the Roman Catholic Church in 1538 in the reign of King Henry VIII, reunited in 1555 under Queen Mary I and then separated again in 1570 under Queen Elizabeth I ( the Roman Catholic Church excommunicated Elizabeth I in 1570 in response to the Act of Supremacy 1559 ).

Thus the only member churches of the present Anglican Communion existing by the mid-18th century were the Church of England, its closely linked sister church, the Church of Ireland ( which also separated from Roman Catholicism under Henry VIII ) and the Scottish Episcopal Church which for parts of the 17th and 18th centuries was partially underground ( it was suspected of Jacobite sympathies ).

Schweitzer concludes that the 1st century theology, originating in the lifetimes of those who first followed Jesus, is both incompatible with, and far removed from, those beliefs later made official by the Roman Emperor Constantine in 325 CE.

The earliest articles of faith were said to have been composed in the first century by the apostles themselves and sung publicly while on mission ( see Old Roman Symbol ).

But, by the end of the 4th century Trinitarianism prevailed in the Roman Empire.

When the Germanic peoples entered the Roman Empire and founded successor-kingdoms in the western part, most had been Arian Christians for more than a century.

In contrast, in the Arian German kingdoms established on the wreckage of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, there were entirely separate Arian and Nicene Churches with parallel hierarchies, each serving different sets of believers.

Inevitably, the surviving evidence is not complete enough to determine whether one should interpret, with older scholars, that he wisely curtailed the activities of the Roman Empire to a careful minimum, or perhaps that he was uninterested in events away from Rome and Italy and his inaction contributed to the pressing troubles that faced not only Marcus Aurelius but also the emperors of the third century.

The modern history of Abensberg, which is often incorrectly compared with that of the 3rd century Roman castra ( military outpost ) of Abusina, begins with Gebhard, who was the first to mention Abensberg as a town, in the middle of the 12th century.

Thus 6th century Gallo-Romans of Gregory's class, surrounded by the ruins of Roman temples and public buildings, attributed the destruction they saw to the plundering raids of the Alemanni.

Vipsania Agrippina or most commonly known as Agrippina Major or Agrippina the Elder ( Major Latin for the elder, Classical Latin:, 14 BC – 17 October 33 ) was a distinguished and prominent Roman woman of the first century AD.

During the fourth century, the Roman emperors commonly employed foederati: Germanic irregular troops under Roman command, but organized by tribal structures.

Herm of Hermes, Roman copy of a late 5th century BC original, the forefront inscription states the herm was made by Alcamenes and placed infront of the gates of Pergamon, Istanbul Archaeology Museums | Istanbul Museums.

Woodcut showing the 16th century astronomical clock of Uppsala Cathedral, with two clockfaces, one with Arabic and one with Roman numerals.

In the 6th century BC the kingdom of Lydia almost expanded to the whole of Asia Minor, until it became a satrapy of the Persian Empire.

Konstantinos Porphyrogennetos, the fourth emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire in the 9th century AD, referred to Asia Minor as East thema, " ανατολικόν θέμα " ( from the Greek words anatoli: east, thema: administrative division ), placing this region to the East of Byzantium, while Europe was lying to the West.

Parts of both countries were part of the Portuguese Empire from the early 16th century until Brazil's independence in 1822.

The earliest historical records of Anatolia stem from the south east of the region, and are from the Mesopotamian based Akkadian Empire during the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BC.

Later during the 6th century BC, most of Anatolia was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Persians having usurped the Medes as the dominant dynasty in Iran.

Byzantine control was challenged by Arab raids starting in the 7th century ( see Byzantine – Arab Wars ), but in the 9th and 10th century a resurgent Byzantine Empire regained its lost territories and even expanded beyond its traditional borders, into Armenia and Syria ( ancient Aram ).

The Anatolian beyliks were in turn absorbed into the rising Ottoman Empire during the 15th century.

With the beginning of the slow decline of the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century, and as a result of the expansionist policies of Czarist Russia in the Caucasus, many Muslim nations and groups in that region, mainly Circassians, Tatars, Azeris, Lezgis, Chechens, and several Turkic groups left their ancestral homelands and settled in Anatolia.

Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early 20th century ( see the rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire ).

In general, the alphabets of the Mediterranean region ( Anatolia, Greece, Italy ) are classified as Phoenician-derived, adapted from around the 8th century BCE, while those of the East ( the Levant, Persia, Central Asia and India ) are considered Aramaic-derived, adapted from around the 6th century BCE from the Imperial Aramaic script of the Achaemenid Empire.

In western Europe Arianism, which had been taught by Ulfilas, the Arian missionary to the Germanic tribes, was dominant among the Goths and Lombards ( and, significantly for the late Empire, the Vandals ); but it ceased to be the mainstream belief by the 8th century.

A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the Inca civilization and Inca Empire in the central Andes during the 15th century.

By the middle of the 19th century, industrialisation swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the entirely corrupt remains of the city's mediæval constitution was kept in place ( compare the famous remarks of Georg Forster in his Ansichten vom Niederrhein ) until 1801, when Aachen became the " chef-lieu du département de la Roer " in Napoléon's First French Empire.

Alexios I had stabilized the Byzantine Empire and overcame a dangerous crisis, inaugurating a century of imperial prosperity and success.

In 1893, Sir W. M. Ramsay in The Church in the Roman Empire held that the Codex Bezae ( the Western text ) rested on a recension made in Asia Minor ( somewhere between Ephesus and southern Galatia ), not later than about the middle of the 2nd century.

Empress Adelaide was perhaps the most prominent European woman of the 10th century ; she was regent of the Holy Roman Empire as the guardian of her grandson in 991-995.

When the Roman Empire turned Christian during the following century, this imagery came to be used in a more metaphysical sense, and removed legal impediments to the development and public use of the Anno Domini dating system, which came into general use during the reign of Charlemagne.

From the 4th century Christianization of the Roman Empire onwards such shrines, or the framework enclosing them, are often called by the Biblical term tabernacle, which becomes extended to any elaborated framework for a niche, window or picture.

He turned from the flying trees to look ahead and saw with an inward boy's eye again the great fieldstone house which, built on one of the many acres of ancestral land bordering the west harbor, had been Izaak's bride-gift to his cousin-wife as the last century ended.

A century ago, Newman saw that liberalism ( what we now might call secularism ) would gradually but definitely make its mark on English Protestantism, and that even high Anglicanism would someday no longer be a `` serviceable breakwater against doctrinal errors more fundamental than its own ''.

Many industries, notably textiles, firearms, clocks and watches, buttons, horse-drawn vehicles, railroad cars and locomotives, sewing machines, and bicycles, saw expeditious improvement in materials handling, machining, and assembly during the 19th century, although modern concepts such as industrial engineering and logistics had not yet been named.

The eighteenth century saw major advances in acoustics as mathematicians applied the new techniques of calculus to elaborate theories of sound wave propagation.

The twentieth century saw a burgeoning of technological applications of the large body of scientific knowledge that was by then in place.

" Amazing Grace " saw a resurgence in popularity in the U. S. during the 1960s and has been recorded thousands of times during and since the 20th century, occasionally appearing on popular music charts.

Dante Alighieri, in the Divine Comedy, recounts that he saw Alfonso's spirit seated outside the gates of Purgatory with the other monarchs whom Dante blamed for the chaotic political state of Europe during the 13th century.

As VanSlyck ( 1991 ) showed, the last years of the 19th century saw acceptance of the idea that free libraries should be available to the American public.

The temple to Ares in the agora of Athens that Pausanias saw in the second century AD had only been moved and rededicated there during the time of Augustus ; in essence it was a Roman temple to the Augustan Mars Ultor.

Astrology saw a popular revival from the nineteenth century as part of a general revival of spiritualism and later New Age philosophy, and through the influence of mass media such as newspaper horoscopes and astrology software.

Armoured trains saw use during the 19th century in the American Civil War ( 1861 – 1865 ), the Franco-Prussian War ( 1870 – 1871 ), the First and Second Boer Wars ( 1880 – 81 and 1899 – 1902 ), the First ( 1914 – 1918 ) and Second World Wars ( 1939 – 1945 ) and the First Indochina War ( 1946 – 1954 ).

The eleventh century Persian mathematician Omar Khayyám saw a strong relationship between geometry and algebra, and was moving in the right direction when he helped to close the gap between numerical and geometric algebra with his geometric solution of the general cubic equations, but the decisive step came later with Descartes.

World War I saw the game in New Zealand go into recess for three quarters of a century.

The late 20th century also saw an expansion of the application of analytical chemistry from somewhat academic chemical questions to forensic, environmental, industrial and medical questions, such as in histology.

The Spanish Empire claimed the islands by discovery in the early 16th century, but never settled them, and subsequent years saw the English, Dutch, French, Spanish, and Danish all jostling for control of the region, which became a notorious haunt for pirates.

A railway station on Brighton Road ( on the Birmingham to Bristol line ) led to further expansion, and the end of the 19th century saw a proliferation of high-density small terraced houses.

The late Medieval period saw the recitation of certain hours of the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin, which was based on the Breviary in form and content, becoming popular among those who could read, and Bishop Challoner did much to popularise the hours of Sunday Vespers and Compline ( albeit in English translation ) in his ' Garden of the Soul ' in the eighteenth century.

The Liturgical Movement in the twentieth century saw renewed interest in the Offices of the Breviary and several popular editions were produced containing the vernacular as well as the Latin.

The growing influence of English-dominated media from outside the Scottish communities saw the use of this language erode quickly during the 20th century.

The turn of the 20th century saw Cape Breton Island at the forefront of scientific achievement with the now-famous activities launched by inventors Alexander Graham Bell and Guglielmo Marconi.

Cretin became a medical term in the 18th century, from an Alpine French dialect prevalent in a region where persons with such a condition were especially common ( see below ); it saw wide medical use in the 19th and early 20th centuries, and then spread more widely in popular English as a markedly derogatory term for a person who behaves stupidly.

The opening of Korea to foreign Christian missionary activity in the late 19th century saw some improvement in the status of the baekjeong ; However, everyone was not equal under the Christian congregation, and protests erupted when missionaries attempted to integrate them into worship services, with non-baekjeong finding such an attempt insensitive to traditional notions of hierarchical advantage.

The 17th century saw the creation of the French colonial empire and the Dutch Empire, as well as the English colonial empire, which later became the British Empire.

The 20th century saw a proliferation of enabling law across the world, which helped to drive economic booms in many countries before and after World War I.