Austrian Germanist Rudolf Simek says that Bifröst either means " the swaying road to heaven " ( also citing bifa ) or, if Bilröst is the original form of the two ( which Simek says is likely ), " the fleetingly glimpsed rainbow " ( possibly connected to bil, perhaps meaning " moment, weak point ").

" Rudolf Simek theorizes that the figure of Hel is " probably a very late personification of the underworld Hel ," and says that " the first kennings using the goddess Hel are found at the end of the 10th and in the 11th centuries.

Rudolf Simek notes that these horse heads gables can " still be seen today " ( from a 2007 edition of a work first published in 1984 ) and says that the horse head gables confirm that Hengist and Horsa were originally considered mythological, horse-shaped beings.

The theory is complicated by the etymology of the name Svafrþorinn ( þorinn meaning " brave " and svafr means " gossip ") ( or possibly connects to sofa " sleep "), which Rudolf Simek says makes little sense when attempting to connect it to Njörðr.

" Simek says that Hoddmímis holt " should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden, but rather as an alternative name for the world-tree Yggdrasill.

" Simek says that in Germanic regions, the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient.

Rudolf Simek says that the etymology that Snorri presents in Gylfaginning for the name Gná may not be correct, yet it is unclear what the name may otherwise mean, though Gná has also been etymologically theorized as a " goddess of fullness.

However, in the same work, Rudolf Simek also says that the goddesses Sága, Hlín, Sjöfn, Snotra, Vár, and Vör should be considered vaguely defined figures who " should be seen as female protective goddesses " that are all responsible for " specific areas of the private sphere, and yet clear differences were made between them so that they are in many ways similar to matrons.

Simek rejects notions of a " vegetation cult " venerating Sif, says that Sif does not appear to have a function, dismisses theories proposing connections between Sif's hair and grain as " over-zealous interpretation ", and theorizes that Snorri invented the story of Sif's shorn locks in attempt to explain the attributes of various gods.

Rudolf Simek says that it is uncertain whether or not Vör was a goddess as attested in the Prose Edda and if the etymological connection presented there ( between Vör and Old Norse vörr, meaning " careful ") is correct.

Rudolf Simek says that " these Idisi are obviously a kind of valkyrie, as these also have the power to hamper enemies in Norse mythology " and points to a connection with the valkyrie name Herfjötur ( Old Norse " army-fetter ").

Simek says that the West Germanic term Idisi ( Old Saxon idis, Old High German itis, Old English ides ) refers to a " dignified, well respected woman ( married or unmarried ), possibly a term for any woman, and therefore glosses exactly Latin matrona " and that a link to the North Germanic term dísir is reasonable to assume, yet not undisputed.

Simek says that " as the function of the matrons was also extremely varied — fertility goddess, personal guardians, but also warrior-goddesses — the belief in the dísir, like the belief in the valkyries, norns, and matrons, may be considered to be different manifestations of a belief in a number of female ( half -?

Simek says that this original concept was " superseded by the shield girls — Irish female warriors who lived on like the einherjar in Valhall.

" Simek says that the valkyries were closely associated with Odin, and that this connection existed in an earlier role as " demons of death ".

" Simek says that the majority of the names of the valkyries point to a warlike function, that most of their names do not appear to be very old, and that the names " mostly come from poetic creativity rather than from real folk-belief.

Rudolf Simek says that the name Göndul is etymologically rooted in Old Norse gandr ( meaning " magic, magic wand "), yet in the Norwegian ' Göndul charm ' it appears to mean " magical animal ; werewolf?

Simek says that since the connection has become widespread, " one tends to interpret these obviously living armies of the dead as religiously motivated bands of warriors, who led to the formation of the concept of the einherjar as well as the Wild Hunt [...]".

Simek says that Snorri ’ s description is further proven faithful by way of the ( above mentioned ) 10th century skaldic kenning “ Kvasir ’ s blood ” ( Old Norse Kvasis dreya ), and that strong parallels exist between the Old Norse tale of the theft of the Mead of Poetry by Odin ( in the form of an eagle ) and the Sanskrit tale of the theft of Soma — beverage of the gods — by the god Indra ( or an eagle ), and that these parallels point to a common Proto-Indo-European basis.

" Simek says that Hoddmímis holt " should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden, but rather as an alternative name for the world-tree Yggdrasill.

" Simek says that in Germanic regions, the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient.

Simek states that Hlín is likely simply another name for Frigg, and that Snorri " misunderstood her to be a goddess in her own right in his reading of the Völuspá stanza.

Rudolf Simek theorizes that Snorri invented Naglfari but states that his reason for doing so is unknown.

Rudolf Simek theorizes that Snorri used skaldic kennings to produce his Gylfaginning commentary about the goddess, while combining several etymologies with the Old Norse personal name Lofn.

Simek concurs that, if the two gods were identical, Snorri would not have kept them so apart ; yet that the names Odin and Óðr are so close that a lack of connection between the two gods isn't possible.

Scholar Rudolf Simek comments that the names were young when recorded, and may have been inventions of Snorri.

Rudolf Simek theorizes that Snorri assigned a horse to Heimdallr in an attempt to systematize the mythology.

Rudolf Simek says that Snorri may have derived his etymology of Sjöfn from the Old Norse words sefi (" sense ") or from sefi ( possibly " relation "), but that the scant references to Sjöfn do not allow for much more of an elaborate explanation for the goddess.

Scholar Rudolf Simek theorizes that Auðr is the invention of Snorri, but says that Snorri's reason for doing so is unknown.

Historians Rudolf Simek and Bruno Dumézil theorise that the Viking attacks may have been in response to the spread of Christianity among pagan peoples.

Scholar Rudolf Simek theorizes that Sif likely originated as a compliment to Thor through his fertility associations, and that the name Sif ( Simek provides the etymology " relation by marriage ") may have originally simply meant " the wife ( of Thor )".

Andy Orchard and Rudolf Simek state that, as Snotra is otherwise unattested outside of the Prose Edda, that Snotra may be an invention of Snorri's.

" Simek notes that the second part of the valkyrie name Geiravör may be identical with the name of the goddess Vör ( and would therefore mean " spear-goddess "), or simple be identical with a frequently found suffix appearing in personal names.

Regarding the dísir, Simek states that Old Norse dís appears commonly as simply a term for " woman ", just as Old High German itis, Old Saxon idis, and Old English ides, and may have also been used to denote a type of goddess.

Rudolf Simek suggests valkyries were likely originally viewed as " demons of the dead to whom warriors slained on the battlefield belonged ", and that a shift in interpretation of the valkyries may have occurred " when the concept of Valhalla changed from a battlefield to a warrior's paradise ".

Rudolf Simek comments that the loose hair may point to maidenhood, whereas the head dresses may refer to married women, the snakes may refer to an association with the souls of the dead or the underworld, and the children and nappies seem to indicate that the Matres and Matrones held a protective function over the family, as well as a particular function as midwives.

Rudolf Simek theorizes that one of the two notions of Sessrúmnir ( as a ship or as a hall ) may come from a misunderstanding, as the meaning of the name can be understood in both cases as " space with many or roomy seats.

Rudolf Simek also theorizes that the name may be a kenning for the Moon.

According to Rudolf Simek, Old Norse dís appears commonly as simply a term for ' woman ,' just as Old High German itis, Old Saxon idis, and Anglo-Saxon ides, and may have also been used to denote a type of goddess.

" Simek says that " as the function of the matrons was also extremely varied – fertility goddess, personal guardians, but also warrior-goddesses – the belief in the dísir, like the belief in the valkyries, norns, and matrons, may be considered to be different manifestations of a belief in a number of female ( half -?

Rudolf Simek says that hörgr may have originally exclusively meant " holy place ", whereas the Old English noun hearg could mean " holy grove " and / or " temple, idol ".

Simek notes, at the same time, similar chains as described by Adam appear on some European churches dating from the 8th to 9th centuries, although the description of the temple chain having been made of gold may be an exaggeration.

Simek says that the numerous attempts at reconstructing the temple based on the postholes may overestimate the size of the temple, and that notes that " more recent " research indicates that the site of the 11th century temple likely adjoined the choir of the church standing there today, while the postholes discovered by Lindqvist may instead point to an earlier, burnt-down temple at the same site.

Due to the Norwegian name for the symbol, valknuter, and the fact that the symbol appears on picture stones with Odin and on burial gifts in the Oseberg ship burial, Rudolf Simek states that the symbol may have been associated with religious practices surrounding death.