Structuralist philosopher Julia Kristeva, seen as a theorist who was instrumental in providing the philosophical basis for American political correctness, denounced political correctness in 2001 in New York Times and said her works have been distorted by Americans.

Philosophers commonly referred to as Post-structuralists include Michel Foucault, Roland Barthes, Jean Baudrillard, Gilles Deleuze ( all of whom began their careers within a Structuralist framework ), Jacques Derrida, Pierre Bourdieu, Jean-François Lyotard, Julia Kristeva, Hélène Cixous, Luce Irigaray and, sometimes, the American cultural theorists, critics and intellectuals they influenced ( e. g. Judith Butler, Jonathan Crary, John Fiske, Rosalind Krauss, Hayden White ).

The new linguistic turn, through the rise of semiotics as well as of structural linguistics, brought to the fore a new interest in figures of speech as signs, the metaphor in particular ( in the works of Roman Jakobson, Michel Charles, Gérard Genette ) while famed Structuralist Roland Barthes, a classicist by training, perceived how some basic elements of rhetoric could be of use in the study of narratives, fashion and ideology.

* Roland Barthes: The Structuralist Activity ; The Death of the Author

The effect of Derrida's paper was such that by the time the conference proceedings were published in 1970, the title of the collection had become The Structuralist Controversy.

According to Vernengo, the Latin American Structuralist and the American Marxist schools had significant differences but agreed on some basic points:

Culler's Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics and the Study of Literature won the James Russell Lowell Prize from the Modern Language Association of America in 1976 for an outstanding book of criticism.

Structuralist or institutional analysis shows that the term is misused when it is applied to institutions acting in pursuit of their acknowledged goals, for example, when a group of corporations engage in price-fixing to increase profits.

Another common thread among thinkers associated with the Post-Structuralist movement is the criticism of the absolutist, quasi-scientific claims of Structuralist theorists as more reflective of the mechanistic bias inspired by bureaucratization and industrialization than of the inner-workings of actual primitive cultures, languages or psyches.

Structuralist film theory is a branch of film theory that is rooted in Structuralism, itself based on structural linguistics.

Structuralist film theory emphasizes how films convey meaning through the use of codes and conventions not dissimilar to the way languages are used to construct meaning in communication.

Structuralist readings focus on how the structures of the single text resolve inherent narrative tensions.

Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics and the Study of Literature.

* Patrick Brady, Structuralist perspectives in criticism of fiction: essays on Manon Lescaut and La Vie de Marianne, P. Lang, Berne ; Las Vegas, 1978.

Structuralist theorists, such as Ferdinand de Saussure and Jacques Lacan, argue that all human actions and social formations are related to language and can be understood as systems of related elements.

** Structuralist Poetics.

* Culler, Jonathan ( 1975 ) Structuralist Poetics.

" On Realism in Art " in Readings in Russian Poetics: Formalist and Structuralist.

Interactionists prefer several methods to contrast with Structuralist methods, namely ; unstructured interviews, covert participant observation, overt participant observation, and analysing historical, public and personal documents by content analysis.

The Structuralist assumption that fabula and sujet could be investigated separately, gave birth to two quite different traditions: thematic ( Propp, Bremond, Greimas, Dundes, et al.

Matias Vernengo, a University of Utah economist, identifies two main streams in dependency theory: the Latin American Structuralist, typified by the work of Prebisch, Celso Furtado and Anibal Pinto at the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America ( ECLAC, or, in Spanish, CEPAL ); and the American Marxist, developed by Paul A. Baran, Paul Sweezy, and Andre Gunder Frank.

In the 1960s, members of the Latin American Structuralist school argued that there is more latitude in the system than the Marxists believed.

Sneed, An Architectonic for Science: the Structuralist Approach.

Thinkers most typically linked with Structuralism include anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss, linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser, the early writings of psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, the early writings of literary theorist Roland Barthes, and the semiotician Algirdas Greimas.

It was greatly influenced by the writings of Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche in the 19th century and other early-to-mid 20th-century philosophers, including phenomenologists Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger, psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, structuralist Roland Barthes, and the language / logic philosopher, Ludwig Wittgenstein.

However, by the late 1960s, many of Structuralism's basic tenets came under attack from a new wave of predominantly French intellectuals such as the philosopher and historian Michel Foucault, the philosopher and social commentator Jacques Derrida, the Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser, and the literary critic Roland Barthes.

* November 12 – Roland Barthes, French philosopher and literary critic ( d. 1980 )

The Zengakuren are discussed by French philosopher Roland Barthes in L ’ empire des Signes ( Empire of Signs ) in a section entitled ‘ The Writing of Violence .’ Barthes explains:

Roland Gérard Barthes (; 12 November 1915 – 25 March 1980 ) was a French literary theorist, philosopher, critic, and semiotician.

Camera Lucida ( in French, La Chambre claire ) is a short book published in 1980 by the French literary theorist and philosopher Roland Barthes.

The Slovenian philosopher Slavoj Žižek, a known Lacanian theorist, has adopted the term in his philosophy ; it may also be seen in the works, both joint and individual, of Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, and it plays an important role in the writing of Julia Kristeva and Roland Barthes.

This powerful essay ... revolves around a remarkable deathbed scene in which a dying blind philosopher, Saunderson, rejects the arguments of a providential God during his last hours.

Another early usage of the term, was by the American artist, mystic, and philosopher Walter Russell, who spoke of "... this New Age philosophy of the spiritual re-awakening of man ... Man's purpose in this New Age is to acquire more and more knowledge ..." in his essay " Power Through Knowledge ," which was also published in 1944.

However, the philosopher Donald Davidson published a highly regarded essay in 1974, " On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme ," arguing that the notion that any languages or theories could be incommensurable with one another was itself incoherent.

In his essay, " Against Theology ", the philosopher Walter Kaufmann sought to differentiate theology from religion in general.

The Ancient Greek natural philosopher Archimedes in his essay The Sand Reckoner, estimated the diameter of the cosmos to be the equivalent in stadia of what we call two light years.

An early critic of social contract theory was Rousseau's friend, the philosopher David Hume, who in 1742 published an essay " Of Civil Liberty ", in whose second part, entitled, " Of the Original Contract ", he stressed that the concept of a " social contract " was a convenient fiction:

In his essay On Bullshit ( originally written in 1986, and published as a monograph in 2005 ), philosopher Harry Frankfurt of Princeton University characterizes bullshit as a form of falsehood distinct from lying.

Lyndall Gordon states this was an " influential essay ", in which Fawcett cleansed the reputation of the early feminist philosopher and claimed her as a foremother of the struggle for the vote.

In her essay " Sophistry about Conventions ," philosopher Martha Nussbaum argues that Stanley Fish's theoretical views are based on " extreme relativism and even radical subjectivism.

* Gottfried Leibniz argues in his essay On Nature Itself that refusing to acknowledge an active force in things and instead " simply to absorb this force into a command of God ’ s-a command given just once in the past, having no effect on things and leaving no traces of itself in them-is so far from making the matter easier to grasp that it is more like abandoning the role of the philosopher altogether and cutting the Gordian knot with a sword.

In 1811, German philosopher Karl Krause, suggested, in an essay titled " The Archetype of Humanity ", the formation of five regional federations: Europe, Asia, Africa, America and Australia, aggregated under a world republic.

The philosopher Thomas Nagel advocates this abolutist rule in his essay War and Massacre.

In the essay " A Nice Derangement of Epitaphs ", philosopher Donald Davidson argues that malapropisms demonstrate that competence in a language is not a matter of applying rigid rules to the decoding of utterances.

In his essay " On the Uses and Abuses of History for Life " from his Untimely Meditations, philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche examines three forms of history.

Absurdism as a belief system was born of the European existentialist movement that ensued, specifically when the French Algerian philosopher and writer Albert Camus rejected certain aspects from that philosophical line of thought and published his essay The Myth of Sisyphus.

The Mexican philosopher and educator José Vasconcelos authored an essay on the subject, La Raza Cósmica, celebrating racial mixture.

The contemporary revival of virtue theory is frequently traced to the philosopher G. E. M. Anscombe's 1958 essay, ' Modern Moral Philosophy '.

The term was first used by the German writer and philosopher K. F. E. Trahndorff in an essay in 1827 The German opera composer Richard Wagner used the term in two 1849 essays.

* Babu Gulabrai ( 1888 – 1963 ): an eminent critic, philosopher and essay writer, known for his biography Meri Asafaltaein

Although Isaiah Berlin's essay " Two Concepts of Liberty " ( 1958 ) is typically acknowledged as the first to explicitly draw the distinction between positive and negative liberty, Frankfurt School psychoanalyst and Marxist humanistic philosopher Erich Fromm drew a similar distinction between negative and positive freedom in The Fear of Freedom ( 1941 ), predating Berlin's essay by more than a decade.

A Defence of Common Sense is an influential 1925 essay by philosopher G. E. Moore.

More recently, in the essay De la guerre en philosophie ( 2010 ), Lévy was publicly embarrassed when he used, as a central point of his refutation of Kant, the writings of French " philosopher " Jean-Baptiste Botul.

Why I Am Not a Christian is a 1927 essay by the British philosopher Bertrand Russell hailed by The Independent as " devastating in its use of cold logic ", and listed in the New York Public Library's list of the most influential books of the 20th century.