Moreover, whereas in Interstate Commerce Commission parlance `` variable cost '' means a cost deemed to vary in direct proportion to changes in rate of output, in the type of analysis now under review `` variable cost '' has been used more broadly, so as to cover costs which, while a function of some one variable ( such as output of energy, or number of customers ), are not necessarily a linear function.

where X is the energy level corresponding to the principal quantum number n, type is a lower-case letter denoting the shape or subshell of the orbital and it corresponds to the angular quantum number l, and y is the number of electrons in that orbital.

They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced, eventually finding the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion reaction.

These energy levels depend on the type of atom and the chemical environment in which the atom was located.

There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other known type of biomolecule ; they are used to store energy and genetic information, as well as play important roles in cell to cell interactions and communications.

The type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws.

Non-spontaneous reactions run so slowly that they are considered to require the input of some type of additional energy ( such as extra heat, light or electricity ) in order to proceed to completion ( chemical equilibrium ) at human time scales.

Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop ; they are therefore staple crops.

This seems to indicate that all type Ia supernovae convert approximately the same amount of mass to energy.

As a new type of nuclear reaction, it was proposed to explain reports by experimenters of anomalously high energy generation under certain specific laboratory conditions.

Different types may significantly differ in their properties, and the optimal mix of storage types is determined by the types and quantities of operations that each storage type needs to perform, as well as considerations like physical space and energy consumption and dissipation ( which may become critical for a large database ).

Different types may significantly differ in their properties, and the optimal mix of storage types is determined by the types and quantities of operations that each storage type needs to perform, as well as considerations like physical space and energy consumption and dissipation ( which may become critical for a large database ).

Any type of electromagnetic energy can be transformed into thermal energy in interaction with matter.

The flow battery, an experimental type, offers the option of vastly larger energy capacity because its reactants can be replenished from external reservoirs.

Food webs are a type of concept map or a heuristic device that is used to illustrate and study pathways of energy and material flows.

Stored energy is created whenever a particle has been moved through a field it interacts with ( requiring a force to do so ), but the energy to accomplish this is stored as a new position of the particles in the field — a configuration that must be " held " or fixed by a different type of force ( otherwise, the new configuration would resolve itself by the field pushing or pulling the particle back toward its previous position ).

This type of energy " stored " by force-fields and particles that have been forced into a new physical configuration in the field by doing work on them by another system, is referred to as potential energy.

Each of the basic forces of nature is associated with a different type of potential energy, and all types of potential energy ( like all other types of energy ) appears as system mass, whenever present.

When energy is in a form other than thermal energy, it may be transformed with good or even perfect efficiency, to any other type of energy, including electricity or production of new particles of matter.

Electromagnetic radiation composed of photons that carry minimum-ionization energy, or more, ( which includes the entire spectrum with shorter wavelengths ), is therefore termed ionizing radiation.

With a few exceptions related to high-energy photons ( such as fluorescence, harmonic generation, photochemical reactions, the photovoltaic effect for ionizing radiations at far ultraviolet, X-ray, and gamma radiation ), absorbed electromagnetic radiation simply deposits its energy by heating the material.

This process makes ionizing radiation far more dangerous per unit of energy than non-ionizing radiation.

This caveat also applies to the ultraviolet ( UV ) spectrum, even though almost all of it is not ionizing, because UV can damage molecules due to electronic excitation which is far greater per unit energy than heating effects produce.

Ultraviolet ( UV ), X-Ray and shorter wavelengths of solar radiation are ionizing, since photons at these frequencies contain sufficient energy to dislodge an electron from a neutral gas atom or molecule upon absorption.

The energy density per atomic transition of ionizing radiation is very high ; it can break apart molecules and induce ionization, which is not achieved by mere heating.

In an atomic bomb, this heat may serve to raise the temperature of the bomb core to 100 million kelvin and cause secondary emission of soft X-rays, which convert some of this energy to ionizing radiation.

So-called neutron bombs ( enhanced radiation weapons ) have been constructed which release a larger fraction of their energy as ionizing radiation ( specifically, neutrons ), but these are all thermonuclear devices which rely on the nuclear fusion stage to produce the extra radiation.

Thus, an additional 6 % of the total energy of fission is also released eventually as non-prompt ionizing radiation, and this is about evenly divided between gamma and beta ray energy.

Basically, a particle is ionizing if its energy is higher than the ionization energy of a typical substance, i. e., a few eV, and interacts with electrons significantly.

The word radiation is often colloquially used in reference to ionizing radiation ( i. e., radiation having sufficient energy to ionize an atom ), but the term radiation may correctly also refer to non-ionizing radiation ( e. g., radio waves, heat or visible light ).

In general, however, ionizing radiation is far more harmful to living organisms per unit of energy deposited than non-ionizing radiation, since the ions that are produced by ionizing radiation, even at low radiation powers, have the potential to cause DNA damage.

By contrast, ionizing radiation is conventionally considered to have no completely safe lower limit, although at some energy levels, new exposures do not add appreciably to background radiation.

Because cells and more importantly the DNA can be damaged, this ionization can result in an increased chance of cancer, and thus " ionizing radiation " is somewhat artificially separated out of particle and electromagnetic radiation, simply due to its larger potential for biological damage per unit of energy.

Even comparatively low speed thermal neutrons, which do not carry enough kinetic energy individually to be ionizing, will cause neutron activation ( in fact, they cause it more efficiently ).

In addition, very high energy neutrons can cause ionizing radiation by " neutron spallation " or knockout, wherein neutrons cause emission of high-energy protons from atomic nuclei ( especially hydrogen nuclei ) on impact.

An intense flood of particles or waves will not cause ionization if these particles or waves do not carry enough energy to be ionizing, unless they raise the temperature of a body to a point high enough to ionize small fractions of atoms or molecules by the process of thermal-ionization ( this requires relatively extreme radiation energies, however ).

When ionizing radiation strikes a semiconductor, it may excite an electron out of its energy level and consequently leave a hole.

When enough energy is deposited in a droplet by ionizing radiation the superheated droplet undergoes a phase transition and becomes a gas bubble.

However, the effect of ionizing radiation on matter ( especially living tissue ) is more closely related to the amount of energy deposited into them rather than the charge generated.

A secondary problem is the extraction of useful energy or momentum from the products of antimatter annihilation, which are primarily in the form of extremely energetic ionizing radiation.

Estimated production costs of radiation energy from machine and nuclide sources range from $1 to $10 per Aj.

Radiation, therefore, is at an initial cost disadvantage even though only 1 to 10 per cent as much radiation energy as heat energy is required for radiopasteurization or radiosterilization.

and Nagaoka himself recognized a fundamental defect in the theory even at its conception, namely that a classical charged object cannot sustain orbital motion because it is accelerating and therefore loses energy due to electromagnetic radiation.

The Bohr model of the atom fixed the problem of energy loss from radiation from a ground state ( by declaring that there was no state below this ), and more importantly explained the origin of spectral lines.

The higher value for alpha radiation is generally attributable to the high linear energy transfer ( LET ) coefficient, which is about one ionization of a chemical bond for every angstrom of travel by the alpha particle.

One-part adhesives harden via a chemical reaction with an external energy source, such as radiation, heat, and moisture.

In short, the electrons of the atoms in the atomizer can be promoted to higher orbitals ( excited state ) for a short period of time ( nanoseconds ) by absorbing a defined quantity of energy ( radiation of a given wavelength ).

As the Universe cooled, the rest mass energy density of matter came to gravitationally dominate that of the photon radiation.

Thermodynamics of the universe is a field of study that explores which form of energy dominates the cosmos-relativistic particles which are referred to as radiation, or non-relativistic particles which are referred to as matter.

In the early work of Max Planck, Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr, the existence of energy in discrete quantities had been postulated, in order to explain phenomena, such as the spectrum of black-body radiation, the photoelectric effect, and the stability and spectrum of atoms such as hydrogen, that had eluded explanation by, and even appeared to be in contradiction with, classical physics.

Ice caps form because high-latitude regions receive less energy as solar radiation from the sun than equatorial regions, resulting in lower surface temperatures.

All climate models balance, or very nearly balance, incoming energy as short wave ( including visible ) electromagnetic radiation to the earth with outgoing energy as long wave ( infrared ) electromagnetic radiation from the earth.

A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of electron volts of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material.

Electromagnetic radiation ( EM radiation or EMR ) is a form of energy emitted and absorbed by charged particles, which exhibits wave-like behavior as it travels through space.

In electromagnetic radiation ( such as microwaves from an antenna, shown here ) the term applies only to the parts of the electromagnetic field that radiate into infinite space and decrease in intensity by an inverse-square law of power, so that the total radiation energy that crosses through an imaginary spherical surface is the same, no matter how far away from the antenna the spherical surface is drawn.

Because such waves conserve the amount of energy they transmit through any spherical boundary surface drawn around their source, and because such surfaces have an area that is defined by the square of the distance from the source, the power of EM radiation always varies according to an inverse-square law.

Electromagnetic radiation is a transverse wave, meaning that the oscillations of the waves are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer and travel.

Planck's theory was based on the idea that black bodies emit light ( and other electromagnetic radiation ) only as discrete bundles or packets of energy.