The medieval Islamic scientists were not far behind, as they understood the actual mechanism of bird flight.

The complexity of this law served as an impetus behind the development of algebra ( Arabic: al-jabr ) by the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī and other medieval Islamic mathematicians.

Native Chinese astronomy flourished during the Song Dynasty, and during the Yuan Dynasty became increasingly influenced by medieval Islamic astronomy.

At around the same time in the medieval Islamic world, a vigorous monetary economy was created during the 7th – 12th centuries on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency ( the dinar ).

The medieval philosopher Thomas Aquinas, perhaps following the Islamic philosopher Avicenna, argued that God is pure being, and that in God essence and existence are the same.

Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labour to be mechanized and driven by machinery to some extent in the medieval Islamic world.

During what is often referred to as the Islamic Golden Age, in order for a scholar to be qualified to issue a fatwā, it was required that he obtained an ijazat attadris wa ' l-ifta (" license to teach and issue legal opinions ") from a Madrassah in the medieval Islamic legal education system, which was developed by the 9th century during the formation of the Madh ' hab legal schools.

Some modern scholars, such as Fielding H. Garrison, are of the opinion that modern geology began in the medieval Islamic world.

From then on Galen and the Greek medical tradition in general became assimilated into the medieval and early modern Islamic Middle East.

Other historians urge caution regarding claims of Islamic firearms use in the 1204-1324 period as late medieval Arabic texts used the same word for gunpowder, naft, that they used for an earlier incendiary naptha.

This evolved into the medieval Islamic Bimaristan hospitals.

conquered by the Arab Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century AD, and became a center of the Islamic Golden Age during the medieval Abbasid Caliphate.

The four schools of medieval shari ' a ( Islamic law ) disagreed on what punishment is appropriate for liwat.

Anecdotal literature reinforces this impression of general societal acceptance of the public celebration of male-male love ( which hostile Western caricatures of Islamic societies in medieval and early modern times simply exaggerate ).

* Homosexuality in Urdu poetry: Tolerance in medieval India and early Islamic societies

In a commentary of the hadith Sahih Muslim, entitled al-Minhaj, the medieval Islamic scholar Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi stated that " one of the collective duties of the community as a whole ( fard kifaya ) is to lodge a valid protest, to solve problems of religion, to have knowledge of Divine Law, to command what is right and forbid wrong conduct ".

Ibn al-Nadim's bibliography Fihrist demonstrates the devotion of medieval Muslim scholars to books and reliable sources ; it contains a description of thousands of books circulating in the Islamic world circa 1000, including an entire section for books about the doctrines of other religions.

Some of the earliest recorded speculations linked mind ( sometimes described as identical with soul or spirit ) to theories concerning both life after death, and cosmological and natural order, for example in the doctrines of Zoroaster, the Buddha, Plato, Aristotle, and other ancient Greek, Indian and, later, Islamic and medieval European philosophers.

Early writing on mineralogy, especially on gemstones, comes from ancient Babylonia, the ancient Greco-Roman world, ancient and medieval China, and Sanskrit texts from ancient India and the ancient Islamic World.

Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of Greek, classical Indian, Sassanian, Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western European astronomy.

Ottoman science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars ' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass.

In the medieval Islamic Caliphate, a form of passport was used in the form of a bara ' a, a receipt for taxes paid.

Though the Napoleonic code was among the first government acts of modern times to introduce the notion of absolute ownership into statute, protection of personal property rights was present in medieval Islamic law and jurisprudence, and in more feudalist forms in the common law courts of medieval and early modern England.

These authors, the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist, quickly became associated with the distinctive Annales approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the Année Sociologique ( many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg ) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th and early 20th-century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes.

This has been identified by the historian Ronald Hutton, cited in an article by Roger Dearnsley " The Influence of Aleister Crowley on Ye Bok of Ye Art Magical, as a piece of medieval ecclesiastical Latin used to mean " lifting the veil.

Among numerous writers of the order in this period are: Cardinals Thomas Zigliara ( d. 1893 ) and Zephirin González ( d. 1894 ), two esteemed philosophers ; Father Alberto Guillelmotti ( d. 1893 ), historian of the Pontifical Navy, and Father Heinrich Denifle, one of the most famous writers on medieval history ( d. 1905 ).

One of Ganshof's contemporaries, the French historian Marc Bloch, was arguably the most influential 20th century medieval historian.

In Shiraz Adhud al-Daula ( d. 983 ) set up a library, described by the medieval historian, al-Muqaddasi, as " a complex of buildings surrounded by gardens with lakes and waterways.

Research by the French historian Marc Bloch in medieval French agricultural history showed the existence of names for two different ploughs, " the ard ( araire ) was wheeless and had to be dragged across the fields, while the turnplough ( charrue ) was mounted on wheels ".

Jean Flori, a historian who specialises in the medieval period, believes that Eleanor manipulated her sons to revolt against their father.

The medieval historian Ibn Athir relates a passage from another commander: "... both you and Saladin are Kurds and you will not let power pass into the hands of the Turks ": Minorsky ( 1953 ), p. 138 .</ ref > He led Muslim opposition to the Franks and other European Crusaders in the Levant.

More's work, and that of contemporary historian Polydore Vergil, reflects a move from mundane medieval chronicles to a dramatic writing style ; for example, the shadowy King Richard is an outstanding, archetypal tyrant drawn from the pages of Sallust, and should be read as a meditation on power and corruption as well as a history of the reign of Richard III.

Among medieval Christian theologians, Trajan was considered a virtuous pagan, while the 18th century historian Edward Gibbon popularized the notion of the Five Good Emperors, of which Trajan was the second.

The medieval township on Veøya, an island outside present day Molde, was first mentioned by the historian Snorri Sturluson as the location of the Battle of Sekken in 1162, where king Håkon the Broad-shouldered was killed fighting the aristocrat Erling Skakke, during the Norwegian civil wars.

Map of medieval Alania ( 10th – 12th century ), according to Ossetian historian Ruslan Suleymanovich Bzarov.

As the Dictionary of the Middle Ages says, " William's achievements in assembling and evaluating sources, and in writing in excellent and original Latin a critical and judicious ( if chronologically faulty ) narrative, make him an outstanding historian, superior by medieval, and not inferior by modern, standards of scholarship.

Map of medieval Alania ( 10th-12th century ), according to Ossetian historian Ruslan Suleymanovich Bzarov.

The school originated as a medieval cathedral school, and it is often claimed ( e. g. by the historian Arthur Leach in a letter to The Times in 1896, and in the Guinness Book of Records ) to have been founded in AD 597 by St. Augustine, therefore making it the world's oldest extant school.

In 1912, he moved to Istanbul, the Ottoman capital, to study law at Istanbul University together with Yitzhak Ben-Zvi, and adopted the Hebrew name Ben-Gurion, after the medieval historian Joseph ben Gorion.

Graves admitted he was not a medieval historian, but a poet, and thus based his work on the premise that the

According to French historian Georges Duby, the three leaves represent the medieval social classes: those who worked, those who fought and those who prayed.

According to the medieval Annales Compostellani Peter was in bellis expertus et audax in principio (" expert in war and daring in initiative "), and one modern historian has remarked that " his grasp of the possibilities inherent in the age seems to have been faultless.

Focusing on the cultural and political use of the architecture at Framlingham, historian D. Plowman has put forward a revisionist interpretation of the castle's architecture in the late medieval period.

is a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society ( United Kingdom ), a leading historian of the social and economic history of the British Isles in the medieval period, and author of Urban Assimilation in Post-Conquest Wales, 1282-1350 ( Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2010 ).

Ferdinand Gregorovius ( January 19, 1821 – May 1, 1891 ) was a German historian who specialized in the medieval history of Rome.

Royal forests in the early medieval period were subject to special royal jurisdiction ; forest law was, as historian Robert Huscroft describes it, " harsh and arbitrary, a matter purely for the King's will " and forests were expected to supply the king with hunting grounds, raw materials, goods and money.

His followers commissioned Stephen of Ripon to write a Vita Sancti Wilfrithi ( or Life of Wilfrid ) shortly after his death, and the medieval historian Bede also wrote extensively about him.