* January 12 – Alasdair MacIntyre, Scottish-born American philosopher

The contemporary Aristotelian philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre is specially famous for helping to revive virtue ethics in his book After Virtue.

This is similar to work done by moral philosopher Alasdair MacIntyre, who attempts to show that because ethical language developed in the West in the context of a belief in a human telos — an end or goal — our inherited moral language, including terms such as " good " and " bad ," have functioned, and function, to evaluate the way in which certain behaviors facilitate the achievement of that telos.

Alasdair Chalmers MacIntyre ( born 1929 ) is a Scottish philosopher primarily known for his contribution to moral and political philosophy but known also for his work in history of philosophy and theology.

Among those who consider the theory to be acceptable are Alasdair MacIntyre, an influential moral philosopher, and Cyril Barrett, a renowned aesthetician and art critic.

Up until that time MacIntyre had been a relatively influential analytic philosopher of a Marxist bent whose inquiries into moral philosophy had been conducted in a “ piecemeal way, focusing first on this problem and then on that, in a mode characteristic of much analytic philosophy .” However, after reading the works of Thomas Kuhn and Imre Lakatos on philosophy of science and epistemology MacIntyre was inspired to change the entire direction of his thought, tearing up the manuscript he had been working on and deciding to view the problems of modern moral and political philosophy “ not from the standpoint of liberal modernity, but instead from the standpoint of ... Aristotelian moral and political practice .”

" in Giovanna Borradori, The American philosopher: Conversations with Quine, Davidson, Putnam, Nozick, Danto, Rorty, Cavell, MacIntyre, Kuhn ( Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994 ) 137-152.

In 1661, natural philosopher Robert Boyle published The Sceptical Chymist in which he argued that matter was composed of various combinations of different " corpuscules " or atoms, rather than the classical elements of air, earth, fire and water.

An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding is a book by the Scottish empiricist philosopher David Hume, published in 1748.

Candide, ou l ' Optimisme (; French: ) is a French satire first published in 1759 by Voltaire, a philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment.

When he was 25, he took a sales job selling books written and published by American philosopher, Elbert Hubbard.

He was particularly drawn to Socialist writings, he studied socialist philosopher Hajime Kawakami, and at age 23 translated and published Oscar Wilde ’ s The Soul of Man Under Socialism.

The professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame Alvin Plantinga criticises it, and the Emiritus Regius Professor of Divinity Keith Ward suggests that materialism is rare amongst contemporary UK philosophers: " Looking around my philosopher colleagues in Britain, virtually all of whom I know at least from their published work, I would say that very few of them are materialists.

Sufi philosopher Idries Shah published several collections of Nasruddin stories in English, and emphasised their teaching value.

Another early usage of the term, was by the American artist, mystic, and philosopher Walter Russell, who spoke of "... this New Age philosophy of the spiritual re-awakening of man ... Man's purpose in this New Age is to acquire more and more knowledge ..." in his essay " Power Through Knowledge ," which was also published in 1944.

* Bernard Williams: A British moral philosopher whose posthumously published work on political philosophy ' In the Beginning was the Deed ' has been seen-along with the works of Raymond Geuss-as a key foundational work on Political Realism.

However, the philosopher Donald Davidson published a highly regarded essay in 1974, " On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme ," arguing that the notion that any languages or theories could be incommensurable with one another was itself incoherent.

English philosopher and historian of science William Whewell coined the term scientist in 1833, and it was first published in Whewell's anonymous 1834 review of Mary Somerville's On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences published in the Quarterly Review.

The fifth edition, published on 10 February 1869, incorporated more changes and for the first time included the phrase " survival of the fittest ", which had been coined by the philosopher Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology ( 1864 ).

The Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus ( Latin for " Logical-Philosophical Treatise ") is the only book-length philosophical work published by the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein in his lifetime.

In 1966, British philosopher John Hick published Evil and the God of Love, in which he surveyed various Christian responses to the problem of evil, before developing his own.

The work of German philosopher Jürgen Habermas was central to this emerging social interpretation ; his seminal work The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere ( published under the title Strukturwandel der Öffentlicheit in 1962 ) was translated into English in 1989.

As a philosopher known for his writings on nationality, economic matters, aphorisms published in Poor Richard's Almanac and polemics in favor of American Independence.

This line of argument has been articulated further in recent years by Canadian philosopher John McMurtry within the Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems ( http :// www. eolss. net ) published by UNESCO.

Humboldt was a philosopher and wrote On the Limits of State Action in 1791-2 ( though it was not published until 1850, after Humboldt's death ), one of the boldest defences of the liberties of the Enlightenment.

The French philosopher, Auguste Comte ( 1798 – 1857 ), established the epistemological perspective of positivism in The Course in Positivist Philosophy, a series of texts published between 1830 and 1842.

* Italian philosopher Giambattista Vico delivers his inaugural lecture to the University of Naples, published as his first book, On the Study Methods of Our Time, in 1709.

* De Nostri Temporis Studiorum Rationae ( On the Study Methods of Our Times ) is published by Neapolitan philosopher Giambattista Vico.

An early critic of social contract theory was Rousseau's friend, the philosopher David Hume, who in 1742 published an essay " Of Civil Liberty ", in whose second part, entitled, " Of the Original Contract ", he stressed that the concept of a " social contract " was a convenient fiction:

In his essay On Bullshit ( originally written in 1986, and published as a monograph in 2005 ), philosopher Harry Frankfurt of Princeton University characterizes bullshit as a form of falsehood distinct from lying.

* The Characters, a book by the Greek philosopher Theophrastus

In 1857, the philosopher Henry David Thoreau, with his book Canoeing in Wilderness chronicling his canoe voyaging in the wilderness of Maine, was the first to convey the enjoyment of spiritual and lifestyle aspects of cruising.

In his 1995 book Darwinian Fairytales, Australian philosopher David Stove used the term " Darwinism " in a different sense than the above examples.

Philosopher Max Stirner, in his book The Ego and Its Own, was the first philosopher to call himself an egoist, though his writing makes clear that he desired not a new idea of morality ( ethical egoism ), but rather a rejection of morality ( amoralism ), as a nonexistent and limiting “ spook ”; for this, Stirner has been described as the first individualist anarchist.

The French philosopher Gilles Deleuze used ideas from Butler's book at various points in the development of his philosophy of difference.

In the book " Pythagoras: Greek philosopher " it states ; " Nazaratus, the Assyrian, one of Pythagoras ' masters, was supposed to be the prophet Ezekiel, and Thomas Stanley's Life of Pythagoras says that Ezekiel and Pythagoras flourished together.

Epicurus the Sage is a two-part comic book by William Messner-Loebs and Sam Kieth portraying Epicurus as " the only sane philosopher " by anachronistically bringing him together with many other well-known Greek philosophers.

Here alone is preserved a summary of the writings of the Phoenician priest Sanchuniathon of which the accuracy has been shown by the mythological accounts found on the Ugaritic tables, here alone is the account from Diodorus Siculus's sixth book of Euhemerus ' wondrous voyage to the island of Panchaea where Euhemerus purports to have found his true history of the gods, and here almost alone is preserved writings of the neo-Platonist philosopher Atticus along with so much else.

In the book Imperfect garden: the legacy of humanism, humanist philosopher Tzvetan Todorov identifies individualism as an important current of socio-political thought within modernity and as examples of it he mentions Michel de Montaigne, François de La Rochefoucauld, Marquis de Sade, and Charles Baudelaire In La Rochefoucauld, he identifies a tendency similar to stoicism in which " the honest person works his being in the manner of an sculptor who searches the liberation of the forms which are inside a block of marble, to extract the truth of that matter.

Charles Colson's conversion to Christianity resulted from his reading this book, as did the conversions of Francis Collins, Josh Caterer and the philosopher C. E. M. Joad.

A review by Robert T. Pennock of philosopher of science Michael Ruse's book Darwin & Design.

Another usage of the phrase was described by British philosopher G. E. Moore in his 1903 book Principia Ethica.

Another usage of the phrase was described and named by British philosopher G. E. Moore in his 1903 book Principia Ethica.

Gerbert was supposed to be in possession of a book of spells stolen from an Arab philosopher in Spain.

In his book Darwin's Dangerous Idea, philosopher Daniel Dennett is especially critical of Gould's presentation of punctuated equilibrium.

The name " quine " was coined by Douglas Hofstadter, in his popular science book Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid, in the honor of philosopher Willard Van Orman Quine ( 1908 – 2000 ), who made an extensive study of indirect self-reference, and in particular for the following paradox-producing expression, known as Quine's paradox:

Förster-Nietzsche introduced Steiner into the presence of the catatonic philosopher ; Steiner, deeply moved, subsequently wrote the book Friedrich Nietzsche, Fighter for Freedom.

In a prominent example from Ancient Greece, philosopher Plato, when asked by a friend for a book to understand Athenian society, referred him to the plays of Aristophanes.

English philosopher, sociologist, biologist and writer Herbert Spencer wrote of the many aspects of the character of the state as opposed to the character of man in his book The Man Versus The State.

In later editions of the book, Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle ; the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles.

Meanwhile, the book was translated into English by C. K. Ogden with help from the Cambridge mathematician and philosopher Frank P. Ramsey, then still in his teens.

The Legalist philosopher Han Fei spoke disparagingly of youxias in his book Han Feizi in the chapter On Five ' Maggot ' Classes ( 韩非子 · 五蠹 ) about the five social classes in the Spring and Autumn Period.

* Italian natural philosopher Giulio Cesare Vanini publishes a radically heterodox book in France after his English interlude De admirandis naturae reginae deaeque mortalium arcanis, for which he is condemned and forced to flee Paris.