Orbitals are given names in the form:

Orbitals with the same value of n and also the same value of l are even more closely related, and are said to comprise a " subshell ".

Their intelligence is measured against that of an average biological member of the Culture ; a so-called " 1. 0 value " drone would be considered the mental equal of a biological citizen, whereas lesser drones such as the menial service units of Orbitals are merely proto-sentient ( capable of limited reaction to unprogrammed events, but possessing no consciousness, and thus not considered citizens ; these take care of much of the menial work in the Culture ).

Orbitals are ribbon-like hoops of a super-strong material ( see also unobtainium ) reinforced and joined with force fields.

Many different civilizations are known to use Orbitals sized according to the preferences of the builders ; the Culture's Orbitals are approximately ten million kilometres in circumference, which, together with their rotational speed, creates gravity and day-night cycles to normal Culture standard.

Orbitals are regarded as highly matter-efficient, providing vastly more usable living space for their constituent mass than primitive arrangements like planets.

Orbitals spin to mimic the effects of gravity and are sized so that the rate of rotation necessary to produce a comfortable gravity level is approximately equal to one day.

They are similar to the Orbitals in Iain M Banks ' Culture novels, and author Larry Niven's Ringworld concept.

Orbitals are a model representation of the behaviour of electrons within molecules.

They are mainly used as high-speed shuttles between Culture Systems Vehicles ( when it is inconvenient for the larger ships to decelerate ), as movers of raw materials for building Orbitals or other space habitats, and for providing other Culture ships with a ' boost ' to aid in rapid deceleration or acceleration.

Orbitals are peaceful people who follow CEGA's lead for protection.

Children select the area they want to customize by clicking the arrows on the outer ring-you can choose from Sky, Ground, Mountains, and Orbitals ( satellites and moons ) for the four planetary Zones.

Other science fiction authors have devised their own variants of Niven's Ringworld, notably Iain M. Banks ' Culture Orbitals, best described as miniature Ringworlds, and the ring-shaped Halo structure of the video game Halo.

This was further developed by Iain M. Banks in his Culture series, which features about 1 / 100th ringworld – size megastructures called Orbitals that orbit a star rather than encircling it entirely.

Given its dimensions ( 10, 000 kilometers in diameter ) it is more like Banks ' Culture Orbitals ( though much smaller ) than Niven's behemoth.

Banks has described Orbitals as looking like " a god's bracelet " hanging in outer space.

Responsibility for day-to-day administration of one of the Culture's Orbitals and the management of its complex systems mainly rests with a Mind, which is situated in a structure in space at the centre of the Orbital, known as the Hub.

Weighting of the of resonance structures in terms of their contribution to the overall structure can be calculated in multiple ways, using " Ab initio " methods derived from Valence Bond theory, or else from the Natural Bond Orbitals ( NBO ) approaches of Weinhold NBO5, or finally from empirical calculations based on the Hückel method.

He is revered among the Orbitals ' inhabitants in an almost god-like way, and is extremely apathetic towards whom he calls the " gravity-slaves " of Earth.

PLATO ( Package for Linear-combination of ATomic Orbitals ) is a suite of programs for electronic structure calculations originally designed and written by Andrew Horsfield and Steven Kenny, but now with contributions from others.

The equations for bonding electrons in multi-electron atoms could not be solved to mathematical perfection ( i. e., analytically ), but approximations for them still gave many good qualitative predictions and results.

For multi-electron atoms, interactions between electrons cause the preceding equation to be no longer accurate as stated simply with Z as the atomic number.

In atomic physics, Hund's rules refer to a set of rules formulated by German physicist Friedrich Hund around 1927, which are used to determine the term symbol that corresponds to the ground state of a multi-electron atom.

A number of approaches to this weakness, collectively called post-Hartree – Fock methods, have been devised to include electron correlation to the multi-electron wave function.

In this model the electron cloud of a multi-electron atom may be seen as being built up ( in approximation ) in an electron configuration that is a product of simpler hydrogen-like atomic orbitals.

It essentially takes the basic Hartree – Fock molecular orbital method and constructs multi-electron wavefunctions using the exponential cluster operator to account for electron correlation.

The Hartree – Fock method is typically used to solve the time-independent Schrödinger equation for a multi-electron atom or molecule as described in the Born – Oppenheimer approximation.

In quantum mechanics, the Russell-Saunders term symbol is an abbreviated description of the angular momentum quantum numbers in a multi-electron atom.

Configuration interaction ( CI ) is a post-Hartree – Fock linear variational method for solving the nonrelativistic Schrödinger equation within the Born – Oppenheimer approximation for a quantum chemical multi-electron system.

Under this assumption the space group must be Af and the following are the positions of the atoms in the unit cell.

The O atoms in each sheet are close packed and each Cr atom is surrounded by a distorted octahedron of O atoms.

Hence it is difficult to conceive of a packing of the atoms in this material in which the oxygen atoms are far from geometrical equivalence.

If the Af bond is linear then there are three reasonable positions for the hydrogen atoms: ( 1 ) The hydrogen atoms are centered and hence all lie on a sheet midway between the oxygen sheets ; ;

( 3 ) hydrogen atoms are asymmetrically placed, either randomly or in an ordered way, so that some hydrogen atoms are closer to the upper oxygen atoms while others are closer to the lower oxygen atoms.

A randomization of `` ups '' and `` downs '' is more likely than ordered `` ups '' and `` downs '' in position ( 3 ) since the hydrogen atoms are well separated and so the position of one could hardly affect the position of another, and also since ordered `` up '' and `` down '' implies a larger unit cell, for which no evidence exists.

Therefore, the only unknown structural feature would appear to be whether the hydrogen atoms are located symmetrically ( 1 ) or asymmetrically ( 3 ).

We are reporting these investigations here briefly because of their relevancy to problems of the study of apparently simple exchange reactions of chlorine and because the results furnish some information on the activation energy for abstraction of chlorine atoms from carbon tetrachloride.

and I asked myself a question: Suppose I had the same number of peas as there are atoms in my body, how large an area would they cover??

Although all of these behaviors merge into each other seamlessly in various bonding situations so that there is no clear line to be drawn between them, nevertheless behaviors of atoms become so qualitatively different as the character of the bond changes quantitatively, that it remains useful and customary to differentiate between the bonds that cause these different properties of condensed matter.

Corpuscularianism is similar to the theory of atomism, except that where atoms were supposed to be indivisible, corpuscles could in principle be divided.

When the atoms are relatively similar in size, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent.

However, this did not explain similarities between different atoms, as expressed by the periodic table, such as the fact that helium ( 2 electrons ), neon ( 10 electrons ), and argon ( 18 electrons ) exhibit similar chemical behavior.

In organic chemistry, compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen are divided into two classes: aromatic compounds, which contain benzene or similar rings of atoms, and aliphatic compounds (; G. aleiphar, fat, oil ), which do not contain those rings.

That same year, Walther Kossel put forward a theory similar to Lewis ' only his model assumed complete transfers of electrons between atoms, and was thus a model of ionic bonds.

Polyamorphism is a similar phenomenon where the same atoms can exist in more than one amorphous solid form.

Covalency is greatest between atoms of similar electronegativities.

A similar phenomenon occurs for emission, which is seen when the emitting gas is glowing due to excitation of the atoms from any mechanism, including heat.

For similar reasons, and also due to the small size of helium atoms, helium's diffusion rate through solids is three times that of air and around 65 % that of hydrogen.

Pyrimidine is a heterocyclic aromatic organic compound similar to benzene and pyridine, containing two nitrogen atoms at positions 1 and 3 of the six-member ring.

The chemical properties of an element largely depend on the number of electrons in the outermost shell ; atoms with different numbers of shells but the same number of electrons in the outermost shell have similar properties, which gives rise to the periodic table of the elements.

Authors of similar recent experiments with atoms and molecules, described below, claim that these larger particles also act like waves.

It may occur when atoms have very similar ( or the same ) quantum levels, at temperatures very close to absolute zero (− 273. 15 ° C ).

Quark-gluon plasma is a phase in which quarks become free and able to move independently ( rather than being perpetually bound into particles ) in a sea of gluons ( subatomic particles that transmit the strong force that binds quarks together ); this is similar to splitting molecules into atoms.

With the conception of hybridized atomic orbitals by John C. Slater and Linus Pauling, which rationalized observed molecular geometries, the method was based on the premise that the bonds in any molecule could be described in a manner similar to the bond in H < sub > 2 </ sub >, namely, as overlapping atomic orbitals centered on the atoms involved.

Large complex gas molecules may have high heat capacities per mole of gas molecules, but their heat capacities per mole of total gas atoms are very similar to those of liquids and solids, again differing by less than a factor of two per mole of atoms.

The heat capacity ratios of the two substances closely follows the ratios of their molar volumes ( the ratios of numbers of atoms in the same volume of each substance ); the departure from the correlation to simple volumes in this case is due to lighter arsenic atoms being significantly more closely packed than antimony atoms, instead of similar size.

* Surface tension: The condensation of a material means that the atoms, ions or molecules are more stable if they are surrounded by other similar species.

This is similar to a Penrose tiling, or the arrangement of atoms in a quasicrystal.