By the 11th century some Hausa states-such as Kano, Jigawa, Katsina, and Gobir-had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicing caravans, and the manufacture of various goods.

By exploring ideas about Roman loyalty, Greek deceit, and differences in ethnicity, “ Plautus in a sense surpassed his model .” He was not content to rest solely on a loyal adaptation that, while amusing, was not new or engaging for Rome.

By engaging in their work, a shaman is exposed to significant personal risk, from the spirit world, from enemy shamans, or from the means employed to alter the shaman's state of consciousness.

By 1494, the Portuguese king had entered agreements with the rulers of several West African states that would allow trade between their respective peoples, enabling the Portuguese to " tap into " the " well-developed commercial economy in Africa ... without engaging in hostilities.

* By engaging the Israelis directly, rather than relying on the authority or the assistance of neighboring Arab states, Palestinians were able to demonstrate their identity as a separate nation worthy of self-determination.

By 1913 only France and Germany had developed field guns suitable for engaging balloons and aircraft and addressed issues of military organization.

By engaging in the Sun Dance, their prayers would be carried up to the Creator, who would bless them with well-being and abundance of buffalo.

By the time of the Lawrence decision, nine states − Alabama, Florida, Idaho, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Utah and Virginia − still banned consensual sodomy without respect to the sex of those involved, and four − Texas, Kansas, Oklahoma and Missouri − prohibited same-sex couples from engaging in anal and oral sex.

By February 15, Riel freed the remaining prisoners on parole to refrain from engaging in political agitation.

By engaging in teachings from Odeen, she also concludes on her own the supernova problem that Lamont uncovered in the first section ; outraged that the Pump is allowed to continue to operate, despite the fact that it will eventually result in the destruction of another civilization, she attempts to put a stop to the project.

By engaging local communities and changing behaviour Rare has been able to launch campaigns to protect areas in most need of conservation.

By using crude oil futures contracts to hedge their fuel requirements ( and engaging in similar but more complex derivatives transactions ), Southwest Airlines was able to save a large amount of money when buying fuel as compared to rival airlines when fuel prices in the U. S. rose dramatically after the 2003 Iraq war and Hurricane Katrina.

By " playing ," he meant not only the ways that children of all ages play, but also the way adults " play " through making art, or engaging in sports, hobbies, humor, meaningful conversation, et cetera.

By ratifying Buford's defensive plan and engaging his I Corps infantry, Reynolds essentially selected the location for the Battle of Gettysburg for Meade, turning a chance meeting engagement into a massive pitched battle, committing the Army of the Potomac to fight on that ground with forces that were initially numerically inferior to the Confederates that were concentrating there.

By 1943 the Home Guard operated its own dedicated batteries of anti-aircraft guns and rockets plus coastal defence artillery as well as engaging German planes with their machineguns.

By the early 1970s, FRELIMO's 7, 000-strong guerilla force had wrested control of some parts of central and northern Mozambique from the Portuguese authorities and was engaging a Portuguese force of approximately 60, 000 soldiers.

By the middle of the 60s, Fort & Hairston had pulled together 21 other local street gangs, thus becoming the dominant gang on Chicago's South Side, engaging in numerous criminal activities while maintaining a political activist facade.

By engaging our nation ’ s young people in service learning, Learn and Serve America instills an ethic of lifelong community service.

By May, 70 civil actions had been filed against Putnam for allegedly engaging in improper trading.

By virtue of his accessible characters and engaging plots, Garis was one of the most influential children's authors of his day.

By engaging in prolonged copulations a male has an increased opportunity to place more sperm within the female's reproductive tract and prevent the female from copulating with other males.

By engaging Phillips in apparently irrelevant conversation, and squeezing Pete in the shoulder extremely hard to prevent him from interfering, Connor learns that the tapes from the five separate advanced security cameras that were monitoring the murder scene had been switched.

By mid-morning obervers were engaging massed German infantry but these pressed forward and reached just east of Hamel.

By engaging in dialectic with a group of Socrates ' friends, including the Thebans Cebes and Simmias, Socrates explores various arguments for the soul's immortality in order to show that there is an afterlife in which the soul will dwell following death.

By the beginning of the 20th century, Western scholars of Islam started to critically engage with the Islamic texts, subjecting them to the same agnostic, searching scrutiny that had previously been applied to Christian texts ( see higher criticism ).

By the turn of the twentieth century it had begun to be displaced by the shorter and purely Arabic term Islam and by 1938, when Orientalist scholars completed The Encyclopaedia of Islam, seems to have virtually disappeared from the English language.

By comparing the different natural languages, scholars hope to learn something about the nature of human intelligence and the innate biases and constraints that shape natural language, which are sometimes called universal grammar.

By the Song dynasty, addition of punctuation to texts by scholars to aid comprehension became common.

By other scholars, however, the second element has been identified with the Celtic element-lan, signifying an enclosure or demarcated territory ( source of the Welsh word ' llan ', meaning a sanctuary or church ).

By the Eastern Han period, local elites of unattached scholars, teachers, students, and government officials began to identify themselves as members of a larger, nationwide gentry class with shared values and a commitment to mainstream scholarship.

By the Hellenistic period, the language was largely confined to scholars and priests working in temples in Assyria and Babylonia.

By bringing Chrysoloras to Florence, Salutati made it possible for a select group of scholars ( including Bruni and Vergerio ) to read Aristotle and Plato in the original ancient Greek.

By the mid-twentieth century a consensus had emerged among scholars that the historicity of Laozi was doubtful or unprovable and that the Tao Te Ching was

By the end of 1948, nearly two years after their discovery, scholars had yet to locate the original cave where the fragments had been found.

By way of historical linguistics and comparative mythology, scholars have linked Ymir to Tuisto, the Proto-Germanic being attested by Tacitus in his 1st century AD work Germania and have identified Ymir as an echo of a primordial being reconstructed in Proto-Indo-European mythology.

By 1400 there emerged an interest in humanitas which contrasted with the formalism of the medieval period, but initially this new interest in Roman antiquity was restricted to a few scholars, writers and philosophers ; it did not at first influence the visual arts.

By contrast, where monasteries had provided grammar schools for older scholars, these were commonly refounded with enhanced endowments ; some by royal command in connection to the newly re-established cathedral churches, others by private initiative.

By this time, scholars had discovered how and when many elements of varied provenance had come to be incorporated into the Roman Rite of Mass and subsequently preserved in Pope Pius V's 1570 revision of the liturgy.

By the time of its discovery, most scholars did not consider Apostle Thomas the author of this document and the author remained unknown.

By finding those sayings in the Gospel of Thomas that overlap with the Gospel of the Hebrews, Q, Mark, Matthew, Luke, John, and Paul, scholars feel such sayings represent " multiple attestations " and therefore are more likely to come from a historical Jesus than sayings that are only singly attested.

By 1802, however, with a Society of 337 members and 1, 002 scholars, one end was pulled down and the side walls were extended to provide extra space.

By 1900, critical scholars had largely concluded that Mark came before Matthew and Luke and served as a source for each.

By 1900, scholars had hypothesized this lost collection of Jesus ' sayings, thought to be the source of material found in Matthew and Luke but not in Mark.

By the age of twenty he was recognized as one of the most promising scholars of his time.

By 1898, when both the town and the university were renamed Yuryev, virtually all distinguished scholars from Germany had left.

By the mid-20th century Western scholars generally considered " the Orient " as just East Asia, Southeast Asia, and eastern Central Asia.

By his comtemporaries and after his death Stubbs was considered to have been in the front rank of historical scholars both as an author and a critic, and as a master of every department of the historian's work, from the discovery of materials to the elaboration of well founded theories and literary production.

By working backwards from the start of his ministry, some scholars estimate the year 28 AD to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus and his year of birth to be around 6-4 BC.