Until the introduction of ampicillin by the British company Beecham, penicillin therapies had only been effective against Gram-positive organisms such as staphylococci and streptococci.

Until the introduction of gunpowder into western warfare artillery depended upon mechanical energy to operate and this severely limited the kinetic energy of the projectiles while also requiring the construction of very large apparatus to store sufficient energy.

Until very recently the Italian police ( including the Carabinieri ) operated only Italian-made vehicles, but that changed with the introduction of Land Rover Defenders and Subarus into service.

Until the 1830s, the Pawnee in what became United States territory were relatively isolated from interaction with Europeans and escaped some of the losses due to introduction of Eurasian infectious diseases, such as measles, smallpox, and cholera, to which Native Americans had no immunity.

Until the introduction of the potato, whole forest-dwelling communities which had scarce access to wheat flour relied on chestnuts as their main source of carbohydrates.

Until the late 15th century introduction of the contratenor bassus, the tenor was usually the lowest voice, assuming the role of providing a harmonic foundation.

Until July 2010, the Neighbourhood Policing Team for Waterloo consisted of an Inspector, Sergeant, two Constables, Special Constables, and 13 PCSOs-this establishment was significantly increased by the introduction of the ' Neighbourhood Hub Team ' at Waterloo, involving police officers from London Underground.

Until the introduction of amber coloured Whitbread Gold Label in the 1950s, British barley wines were always dark in colour.

Until the introduction of the Countryside Bill in 1968, the main purpose of the Forestry Commission was to maximise timber sales.

Until the mid-19th century most fire engines were maneuvered by men, but the introduction of horse-drawn fire engines considerably improved the response time to incidents.

Until the 1910 introduction by Cadillac of the United States ' first closed-body car, the convertible was the primary body style.

Until the introduction of the LC, every color Mac had supported, at a minimum, 640x480.

Until the introduction of the cotton trade in 1769, Ashton was considered " bare, wet, and almost worthless ".

Until the introduction of DMA, PIO was the only available method.

Until the introduction of the new Harmony of the Gospel Readings for Holy Week in 1969, English-speaking members of the Moravian Church used the name " Passion Week " for Holy Week, a week much more closely associated with the Passion of Christ.

Until the introduction of the BVW-200 camera though, the camera and recorder configuration was a docking system.

Until the introduction of SGI Octane, SGI Indigo² was SGI's most powerful desktop solution for 3D, visualization and high performance computing environments.

Until the introduction of the roundarm style in the first half of the 19th century, bowling was performed in the same way as in bowls, the ball being delivered with the hand below the waist.

Until the introduction of Gmax, and a similar ' game modeler ' version of Maya soon after, amateur modelers had extremely limited access to the tools needed to do so.

Until the introduction of standardised containers, the majority of the town ’ s inhabitants were employed in the docks.

Until the introduction of television into Australia in 1956, the peak hours for any radio station were 7. 00 pm-10. 00 pm-3AK was never able to take advantage of this peak listening period.

Until the introduction of Chip and PIN, all face-to-face credit or debit card transactions used a magnetic stripe or mechanical imprint to read and record account data, and a signature for verification.

Until the introduction of Sky HD in 2006, most Sky set-top boxes uses a standard 28. 8 kbit / s modem to pull content across the online link.

Until the introduction of digital sound, it was fairly common for 35 mm films to be blown up to 70 mm often just to take advantage of the greater number of sound tracks and the fidelity of the audio.

Until 1928 it was directed by a General Manager, after this time instead by a Governor elected by an internal commission of managers, with a decree from the President of the Italian Republic for a term of 7 years.

Until 2008, elected officials were allowed to change political party, while retaining their seats, during set windows which occurred twice each electoral term, due to controversial floor crossing legislative amendments made in 2002.

Until 2006, Jackson Township as governed under the Township form of government with a five-member Township Committee, whose members were elected directly by the voters in partisan elections to serve three-year terms of office on a staggered basis, with one or two seats coming up for election each year.

Until 1994, the Sunnyside's mayor was not an elected official.

Until 1066, England was ruled by monarchs that were elected by the witan, ( which means wise ).

Until recently, the president was elected for a five-year term, and was allowed to serve up to two terms in office.

Until then the HFL had operated with 18 clubs ; this was reduced by the departure of the three mentioned clubs, but Wick Academy from the North Caledonian Football League were elected, to create a league of 16 clubs.

Until 1949, each state elected the constitutional minimum of six Senators.

Until the 3rd century BC, the college elected the pontifex maximus from their own number.

Until the 1995 annual conference in Taupo, the Greens had no elected leaders.

Until our arms have brought the opportune moment for the establishment of a permanent National Government, representative of the whole people of Ireland and elected by the suffrages of all her men and women, the Provisional Government, hereby constituted, will administer the civil and military affairs of the Republic in trust for the people.

Until 172 BC, one of the two Consuls elected each year had to be a patrician.

Until 1992, most black House members were elected from inner-city districts in the North and West: Baltimore, Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Los Angeles, New York City, Newark, New Jersey, Philadelphia and St. Louis all elected at least one black member.

Until the 1970s, the elected members chose aldermen, whose term of office was for six years, and who once appointed were also voting members of the council.

Until the 11th century, the Archdeacon of the Roman Church was responsible for the administration of the property of the Church ( i. e., the Diocese of Rome ), but its numerous ancient privileges and rights had come to make it a frequent hindrance to independent action on the part of the Pope ; as a result, when the last Archdeacon Hildebrand was elected to the papacy as Gregory VII in 1073, he suppressed the Archdiaconate and the cardinal entrusted with the supervision of the Apostolic Camera ( Camera Apostolica ), i. e., the temporalities of the Holy See, became known as the Camerarius, or Chamberlain.

Until a successor Pope can be elected, the Camerlengo serves as acting head of State of the Vatican City.

Until 1898 the General Assembly was apportioned by county, with a total of 30 members elected county-wide " at-large " with equal numbers from each of the three counties.

Until 2010, senators were elected by a plurality bloc voting method ( rare internationally, but often used in U. S. local elections ), where two or more candidates with the highest support are elected from each electorate, and each voter selects as many candidates as there are seats ( i. e., there is no proportional representation ).

Until 1974, the Ways and Means Committee decided which chairmanships newly elected members of Congress would have, along with its regular financial duties.

Until President Putin's reforms of 2004, the Governor was elected by direct vote for terms of four years.

Until about 145 BC, the Comitium was the site for tribal assemblies ( comitia tributa ) at which important decisions were taken, magistrates were elected and criminal prosecutions were presented and resolved by tribal voting.

Until November 2006, the Legislative Council had 44 members serving eight year terms and elected from single-member constituencies.