By defying the Swiss court ban, the Reader's Digest risked a fine of about $ 3, 400, as well as a potential three months ' jail time for the Swiss Digest editor-in-chief.

By convention in some law reports, the appellant is named first.

By convention, the top strand is written from the 5 ' end to the 3 ' end ; thus, the bottom strand is written 3 ' to 5 '.

By convention, the bicyclic β-lactams are numbered starting with the position occupied by sulfur in the penams and cephems, regardless of which atom it is in a given class.

By convention the products form the numerator.

By modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards.

By convention, a calendar year consists of a natural number of days.

) By convention, L ( P, P )

By direct substitution, the solution to this equation can be readily shown to be the scalar Green's function, which in the spherical coordinate system ( and using the physics time convention ) is:

By convention, unknowns are denoted by letters at the end of the alphabet, x, y, z, w, …, while knowns are denoted by letters at the beginning, a, b, c, d, ….

By convention, the charge carried by electrons is deemed negative, and that by protons positive, a custom that originated with the work of Benjamin Franklin.

By historical convention, a positive current is defined as having the same direction of flow as any positive charge it contains, or to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part.

By convention, electric engine refers to a railroad electric locomotive, rather than an electric motor.

By convention, letters at the beginning of the alphabet ( e. g. ) are typically used to represent constants, and those toward the end of the alphabet ( e. g. and ) are used to represent variables.

By convention, the charge of an electron is − 1, while that of a proton is + 1.

By convention the subroutine expected this and the first thing it did was to overwrite its final jump instruction with that address so that it returned.

( By modern convention, the sequence begins with F < sub > 0 </ sub > = 0.

By convention, this may only be advised by the Prime Minister.

By convention, the longest serving state governor holds a dormant commission, allowing an assumption of office to commence whenever a vacancy occurs.

By convention, the Prime Minister is appointed to this Council and advises as to which parliamentarians shall become ministers and parliamentary secretaries.

By law and Southern social convention, household heads were adult, white propertied males, and all white women and all African Americans were thought to require protection and guidance because they lacked the capacity for reason and self-control.

By convention the audience realises that the character's speech is unheard by the other characters on stage.

By convention, one of these, the Prime Meridian, which passes through the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, England, establishes the position of zero degrees longitude.

By convention, the carbon atoms are numbered from 1 to x along the backbone, starting from the end that is closest to the C =

By convention, physical quantities are organized in a dimensional system built upon base quantities, each of which is regarded as having its own dimension.

By painting the Roman-Christian relations in this light, Luke hopes to persuade Rome that Christians are not enemies of the government and should not be looked upon with suspicion or even fear.

By making the mass number of soldiers blend within the landscape / painting, it shows that he believed that the usage and depiction of landscape was just as significant as a historical event, such as a war.

By age twenty, she had met and befriended the important, and pivotal, landscape painter of the Barbizon School, Camille Corot, who excelled in figure painting as well.

By 1000 BC ancient civilizations were using technologies that formed the basis of the various branches of chemistry such as ; extracting metal from their ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, making pigments for cosmetics and painting, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, making cheese, dying cloth, tanning leather, rendering fat into soap, making glass, and making alloys like bronze.

These skillfully rendered paintings encouraged fan Glenn Bray to ask Barks if he could commission a painting of the ducks (" A Tall Ship and a Star to Steer Her By ", taken from the cover of Walt Disney's Comics and Stories # 108 by Barks ).

By the 1880s, Pissarro began to explore new themes and methods of painting in order to break out of what he felt was an artistic “ mire ”.

By the time David died, the painting had been completed and the commissioner Ambroise Firmin-Didot brought it back to Paris to include it in the exhibition " Pour les grecs " that he had organised and which opened in Paris in April 1826.

By arguing that films had auteurs, or authors, Truffaut sought to make films ( and their directors ) at least as important as the more widely-accepted art forms, such as literature, music, and painting.

By the time he opened his own furniture workshop in 1917, Rietveld had taught himself drawing, painting and model-making.

By the late 18th century, with both religious and mytholological painting in decline, there was an increased demand for paintings of scenes from history, including contemporary history.

By the later 19th century, history painting was often explicitly rejected by avant-garde movements such as the Impressionists ( except for Édouard Manet ) and the Symbolists, and according to one recent writer " Modernism was to a considerable extent built upon the rejection of History Painting ... All other genres are deemed capable of entering, in one form or another, the ' pantheon ' of modernity considered, but History Painting is excluded ".

By recreating the sensation in the eye that views the subject, rather than delineating the details of the subject, and by creating a welter of techniques and forms, Impressionism is a precursor of various painting styles, including Neo-Impressionism, Post-Impressionism, Fauvism, and Cubism.

By this time the methods of Impressionist painting, in a diluted form, had become commonplace in Salon art.

By the late 1960s however, postminimalism, process art and Arte Povera also emerged as revolutionary concepts and movements that encompassed both painting and sculpture, via lyrical abstraction and the postminimalist movement, and in early conceptual art.

By the early 1960s minimalism emerged as an abstract movement in art ( with roots in geometric abstraction of Kazimir Malevich, the Bauhaus and Piet Mondrian ) that rejected the idea of relational and subjective painting, the complexity of abstract expressionist surfaces, and the emotional zeitgeist and polemics present in the arena of action painting.

By the late 18th century European influences in painting were clear, with the introduction of oils, perspective, figurative paintings, use of anatomy and composition.

By the 17th century the influence of Renaissance painting resulted in Russian icons becoming slightly more realistic, while still following most of the old icon painting canons, as seen in the works of Bogdan Saltanov, Simon Ushakov, Gury Nikitin, Karp Zolotaryov and other Russian artists of the era.

By the end of the nineteenth century, Arts and Crafts ideals had influenced architecture, painting, sculpture, graphics, illustration, book making and photography, domestic design and the decorative arts, including furniture and woodwork, stained glass, leatherwork, lacemaking, embroidery, rug making and weaving, jewelry and metalwork, enameling and ceramics.

By 1923, he had entirely abandoned architecture and design and moved to the south of France with Margaret where he concentrated on watercolour painting.

By 1620, the approximate date of Ambrosius Bosschaert's painting ( illustration, below ), new garden varieties had been developed, such as the cream-colored crocus feathered with bronze at the base of the bouquet, similar to varieties still on the market.

By 1907, he had begun painting naturalistic self-portraits and landscapes.

By the late 1860s, Degas had shifted from his initial forays into history painting to an original observation of contemporary life.