** Edward, The Philosopher or The Eloquent 1433-1438

Edward, KG, (; 31 October 1391 – 9 September 1438 ), called the Philosopher or the Eloquent, was King of Portugal and the Algarve and second Lord of Ceuta from 1433 until his death.

Duarte, or Edward of Portugal, became the eleventh King of Portugal, and was known as " The Philosopher " and " The Eloquent ".

* Edward, The Philosopher or The Eloquent 1433-1438

Naturalistic dualism comes from Australian Philosopher, David Chalmers ( born 1966 ) who argues there is an explanatory gap between objective and subjective experience that cannot be bridged by reductionism because consciousness is, at least, logically autonomous of the physical properties upon which it supervenes.

A similar defense comes from Australian Philosopher Frank Jackson ( born 1943 ) who revived the theory of Epiphenomenalism which argues that mental states do not play a role in physical states.

Philosopher Mary Midgley, among others, argues that materialism is a self-refuting idea, at least in its eliminative form.

Philosopher Robert Nozick argues that Rand's foundational argument in ethics is unsound because she does not explain why someone could not rationally prefer dying and having no values.

Philosopher Tom Regan argues that animals have inherent value and moral rights as " subjects-of-a-life.

Philosopher Stephen Maitzen has called this the " Heaven Swamps Everything " theodicy, and argues that it is false because it conflates compensation and justification.

Philosopher Thomas Baldwin argues that Sartre's argument is based on a misunderstanding of Freud.

Philosopher Peter Hallward argues that they are an aristocratic form of politics.

Philosopher Nayef Al-Rodhan argues that previous concepts of civilizations, such as Samuel P. Huntington's arguments supporting a coming " clash of civilizations ," are misconstrued.

Philosopher Thomas Baldwin argues that Sartre's argument is based on a misunderstanding of Freud.

Philosopher David Ingram argues that " affirming ' black pride ' is not equivalent to affirming ' white pride ,' since the former — unlike the latter — is a defensive strategy aimed at rectifying a negative stereotype ".

Philosopher Mark Alan Walker argues that rational perfectionism is, or should be, the ethical imperative behind transhumanism.

Philosopher Paul Kurtz argues that nature is best accounted for by reference to material principles.

Philosopher George Walsh argues that Christianity can be seen as originating in a myth dressed up as history, or with a historical being mythologized into a supernatural one: he calls the former the Christ myth theory, and the latter the historical Jesus theory.

Philosopher Hilary Putnam provided a modern parallel of Descartes argument in his 1989 discussion of a brain in a vat, where he argues that brains which were directly fed with an input from a computer would not know the deception from reality.

Philosopher G. H. R. Parkinson notes a common objection to Kant's argument: that what ought to be done does not necessarily entail that it is possible.

Philosopher Thomas Nagel has supported Sokal and Bricmont, describing their book as consisting largely of " extensive quotations of scientific gibberish from name-brand French intellectuals, together with eerily patient explanations of why it is gibberish ," and agreeing that " there does seem to be something about the Parisian scene that is particularly hospitable to reckless verbosity.

H. Freyer, as Philosopher and Sociologist, and the first Bearer of the German professorship for Sociology in Leipzig, keeps the mind that the notion of “ Ideal Type ” is “ a logical peculiarity of historical and cultural cognition ” and “ oversees the contrast of personal and general methods of thinking, on one hand, by defining the logical character in individual, and on the other, by progressing on the way to generalization only till showing the typicalness and not the pure general rule ”.

Philosopher Allan Bloom, a student of Leo Strauss, criticized Rawls for failing to account for the existence of natural right in his theory of justice, and wrote that Rawls absolutizes social union as the ultimate goal which would conventionalize everything into artifice.

Philosopher and politician Roberto Mangabeira Unger has more recently attempted to revise classical social theory by exploring how things fit together, rather than to provide an all encompassing single explanation of a universal reality.

Philosopher John Rawls, in his A Theory of Justice ( 1971 ), developed a " second principle of justice " that economic and social inequalities can only be justified if they benefit the most disadvantaged members of society.

Philosopher and social critic Robert C. Solomon described McKuen's poetry as " sweet kitsch ", and at the height of his popularity in 1969, Newsweek magazine called him " the King of Kitsch ".

Philosopher Jürgen Habermas wrote of Bellah's work: " This great book is the intellectual harvest of the rich academic life of a leading social theorist who has assimilated a vast range of biological, anthropological, and historical literature in the pursuit of a breathtaking project ...

Aristotle is referred to as " The Philosopher " by Scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas.

Philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer argued that concepts are " mere abstractions from what is known through intuitive perception, and they have arisen from our arbitrarily thinking away or dropping of some qualities and our retention of others.

In response to Hobbes, the French Philosopher Rene Descartes ( 1596 – 1650 ) developed Cartesian Dualism, which posits that there is a divisible, mechanical body and an indivisible, immaterial mind which interact with one another.

Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche suggested that egoistic or " life-affirming " behavior stimulates jealousy or " ressentiment " in others, and that this is the psychological motive for the altruism in Christianity.

Galen saw himself as both a physician and a philosopher, as he wrote in his treatise entitled That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher.

Galen was concerned to combine philosophical thought with medical practice, as in his brief work That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher.

Philosopher Albert Meltzer proposed that individualist anarchism differs radically from revolutionary anarchism, and that it " is sometimes too readily conceded ' that this is, after all, anarchism '.

Philosopher George Bernard Shaw initially had flirtations with individualist anarchism before coming to the conclusion that it was " the negation of socialism, and is, in fact, unsocialism carried as near to its logical conclusion as any sane man dare carry it.

Philosopher s of law ask " what is law?

Also of note is the work of the contemporary Philosopher of Law Ronald Dworkin who has advocated a constructivist theory of jurisprudence that can be characterized as a middle path between natural law theories and positivist theories of general jurisprudence.

Philosopher Gottfried Leibniz said that love is " to be delighted by the happiness of another.

Philosopher Kim Sterelny adds, " In claiming that species typically undergo no further evolutionary change once speciation is complete, they are not claiming that there is no change at all between one generation and the next.

Philosopher Igor Primoratz provides four reasons why he believes that state terrorism is typically morally worse than non-state terrorism.

After the burning of the Tuileries Palace on May 23, 1871, Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche himself meditated about the " fight against culture ", wondering what could justify culture if it were to be destroyed in such a " senseless " manner ( the arguments are: culture is justified by works of art and scientific achievements ; exploitation is necessary to those achievements, leading to the creation of exploited people who then fight against culture.

* 427 BC: Philosopher Plato is born

* Philosopher Tommaso Campanella organizes an uprising in Calabria against the rule of the Spanish viceroy ; he is captured, tortured and sentenced to 27 years in jail.